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[SETH]
[ENOCH]
MESOPOTAMIA
The region located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (modern-day Iraq, parts of Syria, and Turkey).
Mesopotamia, often called the "Cradle of Civilisation," saw the rise and fall of multiple powerful cultures over thousands of years, including Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.
The earliest known civilisation, famous for the invention of cuneiform writing, the first city-states (Ur, Uruk, Lagash), and monumental ziggurat temples.
The world’s first empire, founded by Sargon of Akkad, uniting Mesopotamian city-states under one ruler and spreading the Akkadian language.
A Sumerian revival after the fall of Akkad, known for strong administration, legal reforms, and cultural advancements.
Marked by the rule of Hammurabi, who established one of the first known written law codes. Babylon became a major center of Mesopotamian culture.
A militaristic power that expanded across the Near East, known for its advanced siege warfare, libraries, and the great cities of Nineveh and Ashur.
Babylon regained dominance under Nebuchadnezzar II, who built the legendary Hanging Gardens and conquered Jerusalem.
The region fell to the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great, marking the end of independent Mesopotamian civilisations.
Image Depiction: c.3500. The oldest wheel and axle mechanism was discovered in Mesopotamia. This early wheel was primarily used for pottery making and was part of a potter's wheel.
SUMERIAN CIVILISATION
c.3400 BCE – 1900 BCE
Southern Mesopotamia, Modern-day Iraq, Asia.
The first known civilisation with city-states and cuneiform writing.
The Sumerian Civilization developed in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from c. 4500 to 1900 BCE. It was the first urban civilization in the world, establishing sophisticated city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Eridu.
Invented cuneiform, the earliest known writing system.
Created the wheel, advancing transportation and pottery making.
Developed complex mathematics and astronomy.
Produced the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest known written literary work.
Established the first code of laws and system of time measurement.
Sumerian society was highly stratified, with priests, nobility, and merchants at the top, followed by farmers, craftsmen, and slaves. Women had legal rights, including property ownership and could conduct business. Education was valued, with formal schools (edubbas) for scribes.
Sumerians were polytheistic, worshipping gods associated with natural forces and celestial bodies. Each city had a patron deity with a dedicated temple (ziggurat). They believed in an afterlife and practiced elaborate burial rituals. Priests held significant political power as interpreters of divine will.
Sumerian city-states were initially ruled by priest-kings (en), later evolving to secular kingship (lugal). Each city-state functioned independently with its own ruler, though they shared culture and language. Kings oversaw administration, warfare, and religious ceremonies.
The Sumerian economy was based on intensive agriculture using irrigation, supplemented by animal husbandry. They developed extensive trade networks reaching to the Indus Valley, exchanging grain, textiles, and pottery for stone, timber, and metals not available locally.
Pioneered irrigation systems with canals and levees.
Developed the sexagesimal system (base 60), still used in time measurement.
Invented the potter's wheel, sailboats, and bronze metallurgy.
Created lunar calendars and astronomical charts.
Sumerian armies used phalanx formations with copper-tipped spears and shields. Wars between city-states were common, often over water rights and fertile land. Military technology included war chariots and siege equipment. Military victories were commemorated on victory steles.
Built massive ziggurats (stepped temples) like the Great Ziggurat of Ur.
Created detailed cylinder seals for administrative purposes.
Produced sophisticated sculptures, notably the "Ram in a Thicket" and "Standard of Ur".
Developed complex musical instruments, including the lyre.
The Sumerian civilization gradually declined as Akkadian and Babylonian powers rose. However, their cultural, technological, and intellectual achievements influenced all subsequent Mesopotamian civilizations and beyond. Their innovations in writing, mathematics, law, and urban planning formed the foundation for future civilizations.
Image Depiction: Cuneiform, one of the oldest writing forms, originated around 3000 BCE by the Sumerians. Written with a reed stylus on clay tablets, its name means 'wedge-shaped' due to the distinctive marks.
ANCIENT EGYPT
c.3100 BCE – 332 BCE
Nile Valley, Modern-day Egypt and Sudan, Africa
DO AN EGYPT OF THE PHARAOHS FEATURE. One of the world's longest-lasting civilisations centered around the Nile River.
The Ancient Egyptian civilisation developed along the Nile River, united under pharaohs who were considered divine. Famous for monumental architecture including pyramids and temples, hieroglyphic writing, advanced mathematics, medicine, and religious beliefs centered around the afterlife. The civilisation endured for nearly 3,000 years until Alexander the Great's conquest.
Nile River Valley (modern Egypt and northern Sudan).
Key Cities: Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis, Abydos
Image Depiction: Hieroglyphic writing system used by ancient Egyptians, combining logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic elements. Used for religious texts, monuments, and administrative documents until the 5th century CE.
NORTE CHICO CIVILISATION
c.3000 BCE – 1800 BCE
North-central coastal Peru, South America
One of the oldest civilisations in the Americas.
The Norte Chico (or Caral-Supe) Civilization flourished along the north-central coast of Peru from c. 3000 to 1800 BCE. Centered around the Supe Valley, this ancient society developed in an arid region between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains, making it the oldest known civilization in the Americas.
Constructed large-scale monumental architecture without the wheel or draft animals.
Developed sophisticated irrigation systems in an arid environment.
Created the quipu, a record-keeping system using knotted strings.
Established complex society and urban centers millennia before other American civilizations.
Built one of the world's oldest known cities at Caral.
Norte Chico society was likely hierarchical with distinct social classes. Unusually for a complex civilization, they produced little pottery and no visual art. Music played an important role in their culture, evidenced by the discovery of flutes made from condor and pelican bones.
Religious practices included the use of fire, offerings, and ceremonial gathering spaces. Sunken circular plazas served as venues for religious ceremonies. Evidence suggests shamanic traditions and possible astronomical observations influenced their religious beliefs.
Evidence suggests centralized authority coordinated large-scale construction projects and resource distribution. Leaders likely combined political and religious authority. The organization of their 30+ major urban centers indicates sophisticated governance structures.
The economy was based on fishing and agriculture, particularly cotton cultivation, which was used for fishing nets and textiles. They established trade networks between coastal and inland communities, exchanging marine resources for crops. Cotton was a primary trade commodity rather than food.
Engineered complex irrigation systems for desert agriculture.
Developed quipu for record-keeping and possibly communication.
Created distinctive architectural techniques using stone, adobe, and reed fill.
Mastered cotton textile production before pottery development.
Unlike many ancient civilizations, there is little evidence of warfare in Norte Chico society. Archaeological findings show no defensive structures, weapons, or depictions of military activities. This suggests a relatively peaceful society that may have resolved conflicts through other means.
Built massive platform mounds and sunken circular plazas.
Constructed Caral's monumental architecture, including six large pyramids.
Made sophisticated textiles from cotton, though few have survived.
Created musical instruments from animal bones.
The Norte Chico Civilization declined around 1800 BCE, possibly due to climate change or shifting trade patterns. Its legacy includes being the foundation for later Andean civilizations like Chavín and ultimately the Inca. Their architectural traditions, irrigation techniques, and social organization influenced thousands of years of subsequent Peruvian cultural development.
Image Depiction: The pyramid complexes of Caral, showing sophisticated architectural planning. Despite lacking pottery and visual art, Norte Chico built imposing public structures including pyramids, plazas, and amphitheaters.
ELAMITE CIVILISATION
c. 2700 BCE – 539 BCE
Iran
An ancient civilization in present-day Iran that rivaled Mesopotamian powers with its unique language, culture, and ziggurat construction.
The Elamite Civilization flourished in the southwestern region of present-day Iran, primarily in Khuzestan and the Zagros Mountains, from c. 2700 BCE to 539 BCE. The civilization centered around the cities of Susa, Anshan, and later Chogha Zanbil, strategically positioned between Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau.
Developed a unique language unrelated to Semitic or Indo-European families.
Created distinctive scripts including Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite.
Built the massive ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Established one of the earliest legal systems with advanced women's rights.
Maintained independence and cultural identity despite Mesopotamian pressures.
Elamite society was hierarchical but less rigid than neighboring civilizations. Women held significant legal rights, including property ownership and the ability to conduct business. Matrilineal succession was common, with inheritance often passing through the female line. Cultural life included music, depicted in artwork showing stringed instruments and drums.
The Elamites worshipped a complex pantheon of gods, with Inshushinak (protector of Susa) and the goddess Kiririsha being particularly prominent. Religious ceremonies took place in temples and ziggurats. Some evidence suggests female deities held higher status than in neighboring civilizations. Religious motifs in art included serpents and anthropomorphic figures.
Elam was initially organized as a confederation of small kingdoms before evolving into a unified state. Kings ruled from Susa with the title "King of Anshan and Susa." The political system featured periods of federalism, with regional rulers retaining authority under a high king. Royal power was often shared between multiple family members.
The Elamite economy was based on agriculture in the fertile plains, supplemented by trade, metallurgy, and textile production. Controlling key trade routes between Mesopotamia and the east brought significant wealth. They were known for bronze working, pottery, and the production of woolen textiles. Archaeological evidence shows trade connections with the Indus Valley, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf.
Developed sophisticated irrigation systems.
Advanced metallurgy, particularly bronze and later iron working.
Created unique writing systems adapted from and distinct from Mesopotamian scripts.
Excelled in architectural engineering, as seen in their ziggurats and palaces.
The Elamites were formidable warriors who frequently raided Mesopotamian territories. Their armies used chariots, composite bows, and bronze weapons. They became skilled in mountain warfare and fortification. In 1155 BCE, they raided Babylon and carried off the statue of Marduk, demonstrating their military power. The mountainous homeland provided natural protection against invaders.
Built massive ziggurats, including the Chogha Zanbil complex.
Created distinctive pottery with geometric designs.
Carved intricate cylinder seals and stone reliefs.
Produced detailed bronze sculptures and figurines.
Crafted elaborate golden jewelry and decorative items.
The Elamite Civilization was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE, ending their political independence. However, their cultural influence persisted in Persian civilization, with Susa becoming one of the Achaemenid capitals. Elamite administrative practices, art styles, and possibly religious elements were incorporated into Persian culture. Their legacy continued in the region's cultural memory long after their political demise.
MINOAN CIVILISATION
c.2700 BCE – 1100 BCE
Crete, Modern-day Greece, Europe
Europe's first advanced civilisation with palatial centers and extensive maritime trade.
The Minoan civilisation flourished on the island of Crete, developing sophisticated urban centers with elaborate palaces, advanced plumbing systems, and vibrant art. Named after the mythical King Minos by archaeologist Arthur Evans, the Minoans were a maritime power with extensive trade networks throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Their society featured complex religious rituals, possibly including bull-leaping ceremonies. The civilisation declined following the eruption of Thera (Santorini) and the rise of the Mycenaeans.
Island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean.
Key Sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros
Image Depiction: The famous "Bull-Leaping Fresco" from the Palace of Knossos, showing the acrobatic ritual that may have played an important role in Minoan religious or cultural practices. Minoan art is characterized by its naturalistic style and depictions of nature and daily life.
OLD KINGDOM OF EGYPT
c.2686 BCE – 2181 BCE
Nile Valley, Modern-day Egypt, Africa
The Pyramid Age of Ancient Egypt.
The Old Kingdom of Egypt spanned from approximately 2686 BCE to 2181 BCE, encompassing the 3rd through 6th Dynasties. This period of Ancient Egyptian history was centered along the Nile River Valley, with the capital at Memphis (near modern Cairo). The Old Kingdom represents the first peak of Egyptian civilization and is often called the "Age of the Pyramids."
Built the Great Pyramids of Giza, including the Great Pyramid of Khufu.
Created the Sphinx, the largest monolithic statue in the world.
Developed sophisticated mathematics and astronomy for construction and calendar-making.
Established a complex bureaucratic system with specialized officials.
Advanced medical knowledge through study and documentation of the human body.
Old Kingdom society was highly stratified with the god-king (pharaoh) at the apex. Below him were nobles, priests, scribes, artisans, farmers, and servants. Family units were important, and extended families often lived together. Cultural life included music, dance, and literature. The elite were educated in specialized schools, while most people relied on oral tradition for cultural transmission.
Religion permeated every aspect of Old Kingdom life. The pharaoh was considered divine, a manifestation of Horus on earth who became Osiris after death. The sun god Ra gained prominence during this period. Elaborate funerary practices, including mummification and tomb construction, reflected strong beliefs in an afterlife. Religious practices focused on maintaining ma'at (cosmic order) through offerings and rituals.
The Old Kingdom represented the height of centralized royal power in ancient Egypt. The pharaoh ruled as an absolute monarch with divine authority. A sophisticated bureaucracy managed the country, with the vizier serving as the chief minister. Egypt was divided into nomes (provinces) administered by nomarchs. The 6th Dynasty saw increasing power of these provincial governors, contributing to eventual decentralization.
The Old Kingdom economy centered on agriculture sustained by the annual Nile floods, with grain production forming the basis of national wealth. A redistributive economic system collected taxes in kind, which the state then allocated. Trade expeditions brought luxury goods from Nubia (gold, ivory), Sinai (turquoise, copper), and the eastern Mediterranean (cedar wood). State workshops produced high-quality goods for the elite.
Pioneered monumental stone architecture and advanced masonry techniques.
Developed sophisticated tools for stone cutting and polishing.
Advanced knowledge of engineering, mathematics, and surveying.
Created copper tools and early forms of papyrus for writing.
Established innovative agricultural and irrigation systems.
The Old Kingdom maintained a largely defensive military posture, protecting borders and trade routes rather than pursuing expansion. Military expeditions secured resources like copper from Sinai and luxury goods from Nubia. The army was not a standing force but recruited as needed from the general population. Naval expeditions traveled along the Nile and the Mediterranean coast.
Built massive pyramids evolving from Djoser's Step Pyramid to the Great Pyramids of Giza.
Created the Sphinx, a massive limestone statue with a human head and lion's body.
Developed a formal artistic canon with stylized figures in paintings and reliefs.
Produced exquisite statuary in stone, wood, and copper.
Created intricate tomb decorations illustrating daily life and religious themes.
The Old Kingdom declined around 2181 BCE, likely due to a combination of climate change causing low Nile floods, famine, rising power of provincial governors, and the costs of maintaining massive construction projects. This led to the First Intermediate Period of fragmentation. The Old Kingdom's legacy includes the iconic pyramids, artistic and architectural traditions that influenced all subsequent Egyptian periods, and administrative structures that became the template for later Egyptian governance.
Image Depiction: c. 2560 BCE. The Great Pyramid of Giza, built during the 4th Dynasty under Pharaoh Khufu (c. 2560 BCE), is the largest of the 35 pyramids that was built for the Egyptian pharaohs. It was built with over two million blocks of stone, and each block of stone weighs almost three tons!
[HEBER]
The Ad tribe lived in Yemen in the desert in a region between Hadramout and Oman. They were renowned for their great physical stature and the grand buildings they constructed.
Despite their power, Ad were a disbelieving people; they were unjust and worshipped idols.
Prophet Hud called them to reject
idol worship and acknowledge Allah as the only true God. However, despite his efforts, the leaders of the tribe ridiculed him, accusing him of
foolishness and dishonesty.
Prophet Hud urged his people to worship Allah alone,
reminding them of the blessings they had received. He questioned their logic in worshipping idols crafted by their own hands and emphasised
that Allah was the source of life and death, and the only one worthy of worship. He gave the clear message: return to monotheism and leave behind falsehood.
Prophet Hud warned the
Ad of the Day of Judgement, when every soul would be resurrected and held accountable. The people of Ad mocked him, refusing to accept the idea of resurrection.
The people of Ad remained stubborn in their disbelief, mocking Prophet Hud’s
message and rejecting the idea of a life after death. They viewed him as just another man like themselves, someone unworthy of divine authority. Despite their wealth and material success, they could not see beyond their arrogance and materialistic pursuits.
Hud continued to warn his people of Allah’s impending punishment, urging them to seek forgiveness and repent.
However, the people of Ad remained defiant, insisting that their wealth and towering structures would protect them. They refused to believe that Hud
was a messenger and dismissed his warnings,
daring him to bring the punishment he spoke of.
Allah sent a severe drought and, later, a violent windstorm destroyed the Ad. The storm, which lasted eight days and seven nights,
reducing everything to ruins. Only Prophet Hud
and a few believers were saved, while the rest of the Ad were completely obliterated as a sign of Allah’s power and justice.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
c. 2500-1900 BCE
Indus Valley, Modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, Asia.
The Indus civilisation is known for its advanced urban planning, including sophisticated drainage and water supply systems. The cities were built around huge circular mounds, citadels. Around these citadels, they had comfortable houses made from mud bricks, courtyards, wells, drains, toilets and baths.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, from approximately 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE. Also known as the Harappan Civilization after Harappa, one of its major urban centers, it covered an area larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined, spanning the Indus River basin and extending to the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley.
Created the world's first planned cities with grid-pattern streets and sophisticated drainage.
Developed a writing system with over 400 pictographic symbols that remains undeciphered.
Standardized weights, measures, and building dimensions across a vast territory.
Established extensive trade networks reaching Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
Pioneered water management systems including reservoirs, wells, and advanced plumbing.
Indus society appears to have been relatively egalitarian compared to contemporaries, with less obvious social stratification in housing and burial practices. Urban planning emphasized public hygiene with covered drainage and public baths. Little evidence exists of palaces or temples, suggesting possibly different power structures than other ancient civilizations. Cultural artifacts include toys, games, and musical instruments, indicating a rich social life.
Religious practices remain somewhat mysterious due to the undeciphered script. Archaeological evidence suggests worship of a mother goddess, a horned deity, and possibly nature spirits. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro indicates ritual bathing practices. Small figurines, seals with possible religious imagery, and burial practices provide glimpses into their spiritual world, which may have influenced later Hindu traditions.
The governance structure remains debated among scholars. The remarkable standardization across cities suggests centralized authority, yet there is little evidence of royal iconography or distinct palaces. Some theorize a form of oligarchy or priest-led governance. The presence of large public buildings like granaries suggests administrative coordination, while the lack of obvious monuments to rulers contrasts with other ancient civilizations.
The economy was based on agriculture supplemented by crafts and extensive trade. Farmers grew wheat, barley, and possibly rice, using sophisticated irrigation systems. Artisans produced pottery, textiles, beads, and metalwork. Long-distance trade networks extended to Afghanistan (lapis lazuli), Persia, and Mesopotamia, with Indus seals found in Mesopotamian cities. The standardized weight system facilitated commercial activities across the region.
Engineered sophisticated urban water and waste management systems.
Created precise weights and measures using decimal system.
Developed advanced metallurgy, working with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
Built structures using kiln-fired brick with precise measurements.
Designed efficient tools for agriculture, craft production, and construction.
Unlike many ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley culture shows remarkably little evidence of warfare or military activity. Few weapons have been found, and city walls appear designed more for flood control than defense. No depictions of battles, armies, or military leaders have been discovered. This suggests a relatively peaceful society that may have resolved conflicts through trade relationships rather than conquest.
Built planned cities with grid layouts, drainage systems, and multi-story buildings.
Created intricate seals with animal motifs and script, likely used in trade.
Produced sophisticated pottery with geometric designs.
Crafted detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite.
Constructed impressive public structures like the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro.
The civilization began declining around 1900 BCE, with theories for its collapse including climate change, shifting river patterns, earthquakes, epidemic diseases, and Indo-Aryan migrations. Despite its mysterious end, the Indus Valley legacy includes urban planning concepts, sanitation systems, and possibly religious practices that influenced later South Asian cultures. Many aspects of daily life in the region, from cooking vessels to yoga postures depicted on seals, show remarkable continuity with later Indian traditions.
Image Depiction: An ancient statue found in 1927 during an excavation in the Indus Valley. The statue is 17.5 cm high and carved from steatite.
AKKADIAN EMPIRE
c. 2334 BCE – 2154 BCE
Mesopotamia (Iraq)
The world's first multi-ethnic empire, established through military conquest and known for innovations in administrative systems and artistic achievements.
The Akkadian Empire flourished in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) from approximately 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE. Founded by Sargon of Akkad, it united the previously independent Sumerian city-states and expanded to control territory from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf, including parts of modern Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
Created the world's first multi-ethnic empire through military conquest.
Established a centralized imperial administration with standardized practices.
Elevated the Akkadian language, the world's first known Semitic language, to official status.
Produced remarkable artistic works, notably the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.
Developed new forms of literature, including the first known author, Princess Enheduanna.
Akkadian society blended Sumerian traditions with Semitic influences, creating a multicultural environment. The empire maintained social stratification with the royal family, nobility, priests, merchants, artisans, farmers, and slaves. Women could own property and engage in business. The empire's multicultural nature facilitated cultural exchange, with artistic and literary innovations.
Akkadian religion integrated Sumerian deities with Semitic gods, with Ishtar (Inanna) becoming particularly prominent. The empire's rulers claimed divine sanction, with Naram-Sin declaring himself a god during his lifetime. Temple complexes served as religious, economic, and administrative centers. Religious syncretism allowed local practices to continue while promoting imperial unity through shared rituals.
The Akkadian Empire introduced innovative centralized governance under an absolute monarch. Sargon installed his relatives as governors in conquered territories and established a standing army loyal to the crown. The administration used a standardized system of weights and measures, maintained imperial roads, and collected regular taxes. This imperial model influenced later Mesopotamian empires.
The empire controlled key trade routes connecting Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley, Anatolia, and the Persian Gulf. Agricultural surplus from the fertile Tigris-Euphrates valley provided economic foundation, supplemented by metalwork, textiles, and pottery production. Imperial control of trade routes brought wealth through taxes and tributes. Standardized weights facilitated commerce throughout the empire.
Improved bronze metallurgy for weapons and tools.
Advanced irrigation techniques to increase agricultural productivity.
Developed new administrative systems for governing distant territories.
Created sophisticated seals and artistic methods.
Standardized cuneiform writing for administrative, literary, and religious purposes.
The Akkadian military innovations enabled empire-building on an unprecedented scale. Sargon reportedly maintained a standing army of 5,400 men, equipped with composite bows, copper/bronze weapons, and leather armor. The army used siege tactics to conquer walled cities and developed logistics to campaign far from the imperial center. Military conquests were commemorated in monumental art celebrating royal victories.
Created dynamic bronze sculpture with naturalistic portrayals.
Produced the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, showing unprecedented realism.
Crafted detailed cylinder seals depicting complex scenes.
Built massive architectural complexes in the capital of Akkad.
Developed a distinctive artistic style combining Sumerian and Semitic elements.
The Akkadian Empire collapsed around 2154 BCE, likely due to a combination of climate change (prolonged drought), internal rebellions, and external invasions from the Gutian people. Despite its relatively short duration, the empire established the template for future Mesopotamian empires and became a cultural touchstone. The Akkadian language continued as a diplomatic and literary language for millennia, and imperial administrative practices influenced governance throughout the ancient Near East.
Image Depiction: Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, grandson of Sargon of Akkad, showing the king triumphant over his enemies. This propaganda piece exemplifies Akkadian art and the divine status claimed by Akkadian rulers.
MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT
c. 2055 BCE – 1650 BCE
Egypt
A period of renaissance in ancient Egyptian art, literature, and engineering after the First Intermediate Period, with expanded trade and cultural influence.
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt spanned from approximately 2055 BCE to 1650 BCE, encompassing the 11th through 13th Dynasties. Following the fragmentation of the First Intermediate Period, Mentuhotep II reunified Egypt, establishing his capital at Thebes (modern Luxor). The period represents a cultural renaissance and renewed imperial strength for ancient Egypt.
Created a golden age of Egyptian literature with complex, introspective works.
Expanded territorial control into Nubia and the Near East.
Developed sophisticated irrigation projects in the Faiyum region.
Advanced mathematics and astronomy, including sophisticated calendrical systems.
Created innovative architectural works, including rock-cut tombs and massive temple complexes.
Middle Kingdom society saw a rise in the middle class and increased social mobility. Provincial elites gained greater prominence, reflected in elaborate provincial tombs. Literary works of the period show more interest in common people's lives, with themes of social justice. The concept of the pharaoh evolved from a distant god-king to a shepherd of his people, though still divine. Education expanded beyond the palace, creating a broader literate class.
Religious practices became more accessible to common people during this period. The cult of Osiris gained prominence, with its promises of afterlife for those who lived virtuously, not just royalty. Funerary beliefs expanded to include more elaborate coffin texts. The sun god Amun rose in importance, particularly after the capital moved to Thebes. Personal piety became more important, with household shrines and personal religious amulets.
The Middle Kingdom restored centralized control after the fragmentation of the First Intermediate Period. Pharaohs presented themselves as just rulers rather than distant deities. The bureaucracy expanded with a stronger focus on documentation and record-keeping. Provincial governors retained significant power but with greater royal oversight. The capital initially remained at Thebes before shifting to Itj-tawy near Faiyum under the 12th Dynasty.
The Middle Kingdom saw extensive trade networks expand beyond previous boundaries. Egyptian merchants reached Punt (possibly Somalia or Yemen) for exotic goods. Mining expeditions to Sinai and the Eastern Desert secured copper and turquoise. The Faiyum reclamation project increased agricultural output. Trade with the Levant, Nubia, and the Aegean brought luxury goods. Standardized weights facilitated commerce, and taxation systems became more sophisticated.
Engineered massive water control projects at Lake Moeris in the Faiyum.
Advanced metallurgy, particularly in bronze working.
Developed sophisticated canal and irrigation systems.
Created new architectural techniques for rock-cut tombs and temples.
Improved mathematical calculations and astronomical observations.
Middle Kingdom Egypt expanded its military capabilities, establishing fortresses in Nubia to control trade and resources. The army became more professional with specialized units and better equipment. Naval forces patrolled the Nile and eastern Mediterranean. Military campaigns aimed at securing borders and resources rather than territorial expansion. Defense of trade routes was a primary military concern.
Created sophisticated royal portraiture combining idealization with individualism.
Built massive temple complexes, including Karnak's earliest sections.
Produced exquisite jewelry using sophisticated techniques.
Developed more naturalistic and emotional artistic expressions.
Created innovative tomb styles including rock-cut chambers and mortuary complexes.
The Middle Kingdom declined with the onset of the Second Intermediate Period around 1650 BCE, when Hyksos rulers from Western Asia gained control of Lower Egypt. Despite this end, the Middle Kingdom's cultural achievements established templates for later Egyptian art, literature, and governance. Its literary works became classics studied for millennia, its artistic innovations influenced later periods, and its administrative systems provided models for the New Kingdom that followed.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE
c. 2025 BCE – 609 BCE
Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria, Turkey)
A powerful military empire known for its innovative warfare techniques, monumental architecture, and extensive library collections.
The Assyrian Empire originated in northern Mesopotamia (modern northern Iraq) and existed from approximately 2025 BCE to 609 BCE. Its history is divided into three main periods: Old Assyrian (2025-1378 BCE), Middle Assyrian (1392-934 BCE), and Neo-Assyrian (911-609 BCE). At its height during the Neo-Assyrian period, the empire controlled vast territories including Mesopotamia, parts of the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, and western Iran.
Built the world's first systematic imperial organization spanning multiple regions.
Developed advanced military technologies and strategies for siege warfare.
Created the Library of Ashurbanipal, the world's first systematic library collection.
Constructed magnificent palaces with monumental stone reliefs and sculptures.
Established sophisticated administrative systems to govern diverse populations.
Assyrian society was hierarchical, with the king at the top, followed by nobles, priests, merchants, artisans, and peasants. Women had limited rights compared to men but could own property and conduct business in certain circumstances. Cultural life was influenced by Mesopotamian traditions, with literature, music, and religious festivals. Despite their warlike reputation, the Assyrians valued scholarship and artistic achievement.
The Assyrians worshipped a pantheon of gods, with Ashur as their supreme deity and national god. Religious practices included divination, elaborate rituals, and astronomical observations to interpret divine will. Kings functioned as high priests of Ashur, claiming divine sanction for their rule. Temple complexes were centers of religious, economic, and intellectual activity. The concept of divine judgment influenced Assyrian moral codes and royal ideology.
The Assyrian Empire operated under absolute monarchy, with the king holding supreme military, judicial, and religious authority. Provincial governors administered territories, while a sophisticated bureaucracy managed taxation and communications. The Neo-Assyrian period introduced innovations in imperial control, including systematic deportation of conquered populations, appointment of loyal officials to govern provinces, and requiring vassal oaths from subject rulers.
The Assyrian economy combined agriculture, manufacturing, and extensive trade. The Old Assyrian period saw merchant colonies established in Anatolia. Imperial expansion secured control of major trade routes connecting Mesopotamia with the Mediterranean, Egypt, and Iran. Tribute and taxation from conquered territories brought enormous wealth to Assyrian cities. Agricultural production was enhanced through sophisticated irrigation systems and introduction of new crops from conquered regions.
Pioneered advanced siege warfare techniques including battering rams and siege towers.
Developed sophisticated iron-working technology for weapons and tools.
Created extensive road networks and communication systems with relay stations.
Engineered massive water management projects including canals and aqueducts.
Advanced mathematics, astronomy, and medicine documented in cuneiform texts.
The Assyrian military was one of history's most effective fighting forces, known for discipline, organization, and psychological warfare. They pioneered large-scale use of iron weapons, cavalry units, and specialized siege engineering. Their army included infantry, archers, cavalry, and chariots, supported by intelligence networks and logistics. Military campaigns were carefully planned with maps and intelligence reports, with brutal treatment of resisters serving as deterrence.
Created massive palace complexes with elaborate stone reliefs narrating military campaigns.
Built imposing city walls and monumental gates guarded by human-headed winged bulls (lamassu).
Carved intricate ivory decorations for furniture and architectural elements.
Designed spectacular royal gardens, possibly including the famous Hanging Gardens.
Constructed massive ziggurats and temples dedicated to their pantheon.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed in 609 BCE after a series of revolts and invasions, culminating in the destruction of Nineveh by a coalition of Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians. Despite its fall, the Assyrian legacy includes innovations in imperial administration, military organization, and information management that influenced subsequent empires including the Persian, Seleucid, and Roman. Their preservation of Mesopotamian literature and knowledge in the Library of Ashurbanipal preserved cultural achievements that might otherwise have been lost.
After the people of Ad were destroyed, the tribe of Thamud rose to power and wealth. However, as they grew richer, they also became more corrupt. They built impressive buildings and carved homes from the hills, but their moral values declined, and evil rulers took control of the land.
Allah sent Prophet Salih to guide the people of Thamud. Salih
was respected for his wisdom and goodness. He urged his people to worship Allah alone and abandon their idols. While a few believed him, most people refused to listen and made fun of him. They were confused by his message and didn't want to leave the gods their ancestors had worshipped.
The people of Thamud asked Salih for a miracle to prove he was a prophet. In response, Allah made a huge, unique she-camel appear from a rock, just as they had demanded. This was a clear sign from Allah, and some people believed after seeing it. However, many continued to reject Salih
and became to resent the camel, even though it provided them with milk and was a blessing.
Salih warned them not to harm the she-camel, however, the people of Thamud secretly plotted to kill it.
Influenced by their leaders and tempted by rewards, several men killed the camel. They celebrated their act and mocked Salih. Prophet Sailh warned them that Allah’s punishment would come in three days if they didn’t repent, but they ignored his warning.
Three days after the camel was killed, Allah sent a punishment of a Blast from the sky and a violent earthquake. The entire tribe of Thamud was destroyed, except for those who had believed and left.
BABYLONIAN EMPIRE
c. 1894 BCE – 539 BCE
Mesopotamia, Modern-day Iraq, Asia
Known for Hammurabi's Code and advancements in mathematics and astronomy.
The Babylonian Empire developed in central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) with its capital at Babylon on the Euphrates River. Its history spans from approximately 1894 BCE to 539 BCE, divided into the Old Babylonian period (1894-1595 BCE), the Kassite period (1595-1155 BCE), and the Neo-Babylonian period (626-539 BCE). The empire reached its first peak under Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750 BCE) and its second under Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE).
Created Hammurabi's Code, one of the world's oldest and most complete legal codes.
Developed sophisticated mathematics including algebra, geometry, and the sexagesimal (base-60) system.
Advanced astronomy with detailed star catalogs and planetary observations.
Built the magnificent city of Babylon with its Hanging Gardens and Ishtar Gate.
Preserved and expanded Sumerian literature and religious traditions.
Babylonian society was highly stratified with the king at the top, followed by nobles, priests, merchants, craftsmen, farmers, and slaves. Women had certain legal rights including property ownership and participation in business. Urban life centered around temples and markets. Cultural achievements included literature, music, and the widespread use of writing for business, scholarship, and religious purposes. Education was formalized in scribal schools that taught mathematics, literature, and languages.
Babylonian religion centered around a complex pantheon, with Marduk rising to prominence as the national deity. Massive temple complexes (ziggurats) dominated cities, serving as centers of worship and economic activity. Divination, including astrology and hepatoscopy (liver divination), guided important decisions. Religious texts included creation myths like the Enuma Elish, which celebrated Marduk's rise to power. Priests held significant influence as interpreters of divine will.
Babylonian kings ruled as absolute monarchs, claiming divine sanction from the gods. Under Hammurabi, the empire developed a centralized administration with a sophisticated legal system. Provincial governors administered territories, while a bureaucracy of scribes managed records and taxation. The Neo-Babylonian period saw highly centralized control with the king directing religious, military, and economic affairs. Foreign territories were managed through vassal arrangements and tribute payments.
The Babylonian economy was based on irrigated agriculture along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, supplemented by trade and craft production. Banking and financial systems were sophisticated, with documented loans, interest rates, and contracts. Trade networks connected Babylon with the Persian Gulf, Anatolia, the Levant, and beyond. Urban economies featured specialized craftsmen, while temples and palaces managed vast agricultural estates.
Advanced mathematics including algebraic equations and the concept of zero.
Developed astronomical calculations predicting planetary movements and eclipses.
Created sophisticated irrigation systems with canals and water control mechanisms.
Pioneered legal frameworks codifying crime, punishment, and civil disputes.
Constructed massive architectural works using arches, vaults, and glazed bricks.
Babylonian military power varied across different periods. The army included infantry, archers, and charioteers, later incorporating cavalry. During the Neo-Babylonian period under Nebuchadnezzar II, the military became particularly effective, defeating the Assyrians and Egyptians. Siege warfare techniques allowed the conquest of fortified cities like Jerusalem. Massive city walls protected Babylon itself, considered nearly impregnable with double walls and moats.
Built massive ziggurats including the famous Tower of Babel.
Constructed the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders).
Created the magnificent blue-glazed Ishtar Gate decorated with animals and dragons.
Developed detailed relief carvings and sophisticated cylinder seals.
Designed urban spaces with wide ceremonial ways and impressive city walls.
The Babylonian Empire ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BCE, incorporating it into the Achaemenid Empire. Despite its political end, Babylonian culture, science, and religion continued to influence the ancient world. Their mathematical and astronomical knowledge passed to the Greeks and eventually to Islamic and European scholars. Their legal traditions influenced subsequent law codes. Babylon itself remained an important cultural center for centuries, its name becoming synonymous with urban grandeur and sophistication.
Built massive ziggurats including the famous Tower of Babel.
Constructed the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders).
Created the magnificent blue-glazed Ishtar Gate decorated with animals and dragons.
Developed detailed relief carvings and sophisticated cylinder seals.
Designed urban spaces with wide ceremonial ways and impressive city walls.
The Babylonian Empire ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BCE, incorporating it into the Achaemenid Empire. Despite its political end, Babylonian culture, science, and religion continued to influence the ancient world. Their mathematical and astronomical knowledge passed to the Greeks and eventually to Islamic and European scholars. Their legal traditions influenced subsequent law codes. Babylon itself remained an important cultural center for centuries, its name becoming synonymous with urban grandeur and sophistication.
Image depiction: c. 1754 BCE The Code of Hammurabi, a basalt stele 2.25 metres high, was discovered in 1901 in Iran, where it had been brought as a war trophy.
HITTITE EMPIRE
c. 1600 BCE – 1178 BCE
Anatolia (Modern-day Turkey, Syria, Iraq), Asia
An empire known for its mastery of ironworking, diplomacy, and powerful chariot warfare.
The Hittite Empire flourished in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) from c. 1600 to 1178 BCE. At its height, it controlled vast territories, including parts of the Levant and Mesopotamia. The empire reached its peak under Suppiluliuma I (c. 1344–1322 BCE) and eventually declined due to internal strife and external invasions.
One of the first known Indo-European civilisations.
Developed a legal system with laws more lenient than Hammurabi’s Code.
Pioneered ironworking, advancing military technology.
Signed the Treaty of Kadesh (c. 1259 BCE) with Egypt—the world’s first recorded peace treaty.
Hittite society was hierarchical, with the king as the supreme ruler. Nobles, priests, and warriors held power, while farmers and artisans formed the majority. Women had notable rights compared to other ancient civilisations, sometimes acting as priestesses or even regents.
The Hittites practiced a polytheistic religion, worshipping thousands of gods from local and foreign influences. Their chief deity was Tarhunt, the storm god. They absorbed gods from conquered peoples, earning them the nickname “The People of a Thousand Gods.”
The empire was a monarchy, but the king was advised by an assembly of nobles. The Hittites were among the earliest to use treaties and diplomacy, as seen in their interactions with Egypt and the Assyrians.
Hittite wealth came from agriculture, mining, and trade. They controlled key trade routes, especially for copper, tin, and iron. Hattusa, the capital, was a commercial hub.
Mastered iron smelting, marking an early shift from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.
Built massive fortifications and stone architecture.
Created cuneiform tablets for record-keeping and diplomatic correspondence.
The Hittites had a formidable army, known for their three-man chariots, which provided greater speed and stability in battle. They clashed frequently with Egypt and Mesopotamian empires, most famously at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) against Pharaoh Ramesses II.
Famous for rock reliefs, such as those in Yazılıkaya.
Built impressive temples and palaces in Hattusa.
Created intricately carved lion and sphinx gates.
The empire collapsed around 1178 BCE, likely due to internal struggles, invasions by the Sea Peoples, and environmental factors. However, their ironworking techniques influenced later civilisations, and their diplomatic and legal traditions set precedents for future empires.
MYCENAEAN CIVILISATION
c. 1600 BCE – 1100 BCE
Greece, Peloponnese, Aegean Region, Europe
A warrior society known for its fortified palaces, extensive trade networks, and influence on Greek mythology.
The Mycenaean Civilisation thrived in mainland Greece, particularly in the Peloponnese and southern Greece, from c. 1600 to 1100 BCE. It was the first major Greek civilisation, known for its warrior-kings and connection to the legendary events of the Trojan War.
Established the first Greek-speaking civilisation, influencing later Greek culture.
Built massive fortified palace complexes, including Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos.
Developed Linear B script, the earliest known form of written Greek.
Created extensive trade networks, reaching Egypt, Anatolia, and the Levant.
Inspired Greek mythology, with its rulers possibly linked to legendary figures like Agamemnon.
The Mycenaeans had a strictly hierarchical society, ruled by a wanax (king), followed by nobles, warriors, craftsmen, and farmers. Women held some social standing and could own land. The culture emphasized heroic ideals, which later inspired Homeric epics.
Their religion was a precursor to Classical Greek mythology, worshipping early versions of gods like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, and Athena. Many religious rituals took place in palaces and shrines, with offerings to deities.
The Mycenaean world was divided into independent kingdoms, each ruled by a wanax (king) who controlled the military, economy, and religious life. Power was centralized in palace complexes, which acted as administrative and political centers.
The Mycenaeans were skilled traders and seafarers, exporting pottery, textiles, and olive oil in exchange for gold, copper, and ivory. They maintained extensive trade networks, connecting them to Egypt, the Hittites, and the Minoans.
Developed Linear B script for administrative records.
Advanced in metalworking, producing fine gold artifacts and bronze weapons.
Constructed Cyclopean walls, made of massive limestone blocks, for fortification.
The Mycenaeans were a warrior society, and their military power played a key role in their expansion. Their soldiers fought with bronze weapons, spears, and large shields. Mycenaean warriors are often linked to the legendary Trojan War, as described in Homer’s Iliad.
Built massive palace complexes, with frescoed walls and elaborate throne rooms.
Famous for beehive-shaped tombs (Tholos tombs), like the Treasury of Atreus.
Created gold funeral masks, including the famous “Mask of Agamemnon.”
The Mycenaean Civilisation collapsed around 1100 BCE, likely due to a combination of internal unrest, invasions (possibly by the Sea Peoples), and natural disasters. Despite their fall, their culture lived on, influencing Classical Greek civilisation and mythology.
[ABRAHAM]
[LOT]
The Ad tribe lived in Yemen in the desert in a region between Hadramout and Oman. They were renowned for their great physical stature and the grand buildings they constructed.
Despite their power, Ad were a disbelieving people; they were unjust and worshipped idols.
Prophet Hud called them to reject
idol worship and acknowledge Allah as the only true God. However, despite his efforts, the leaders of the tribe ridiculed him, accusing him of
foolishness and dishonesty.
Prophet Hud urged his people to worship Allah alone,
reminding them of the blessings they had received. He questioned their logic in worshipping idols crafted by their own hands and emphasised
that Allah was the source of life and death, and the only one worthy of worship. He gave the clear message: return to monotheism and leave behind falsehood.
Prophet Hud warned the
Ad of the Day of Judgement, when every soul would be resurrected and held accountable. The people of Ad mocked him, refusing to accept the idea of resurrection.
The people of Ad remained stubborn in their disbelief, mocking Prophet Hud’s
message and rejecting the idea of a life after death. They viewed him as just another man like themselves, someone unworthy of divine authority. Despite their wealth and material success, they could not see beyond their arrogance and materialistic pursuits.
Hud continued to warn his people of Allah’s impending punishment, urging them to seek forgiveness and repent.
However, the people of Ad remained defiant, insisting that their wealth and towering structures would protect them. They refused to believe that Hud
was a messenger and dismissed his warnings,
daring him to bring the punishment he spoke of.
Allah sent a severe drought and, later, a violent windstorm destroyed the Ad. The storm, which lasted eight days and seven nights,
reducing everything to ruins. Only Prophet Hud
and a few believers were saved, while the rest of the Ad were completely obliterated as a sign of Allah’s power and justice.
[ISHMAEL]
Prophet Ibrahim and his wife, Sarah, longed for a child for many years. Out of her devotion, Sarah proposed that Ibrahim marry her handmaid, Hajar. Soon, Hajar gave birth to Ismail
.
Prophet Ibrahim was commanded by Allah to take Hajar and the infant Ismail to a barren valley in the Arabian Peninsula. After providing them with a small supply of dates and water, Ibrahim
left, as commanded. Hajar, realising this was Allah's will, trusted that He would not neglect them.
With their provisions depleted, Hajar desperately sought help, running between the hills of Safa and Marwa seven times in search of water. In response to her prayers, Allah caused water to flow from the ground—this became the well of Zamzam. This miracle provided relief for Hajar and , and they settled by the well.
The tribe of Jurhum, seeing birds flying around water in the valley, discovered Hajar and Ishmail by the Zamzam well. They asked Hajar for permission to settle near the water, and she agreed. Ishmail
grew up among them, learning Arabic and becoming well-loved for his character. Eventually, he married one of the women from the tribe.
Years later, when Ismail reached maturity, Prophet Ibrahim was tested by Allah through a dream in which he was commanded to sacrifice his son. Upon sharing this with Ismail, Ismail accepted his fate.
However, as Ibrahim prepared to carry out the sacrifice, Allah intervened, replacing Ismail
with a ram, rewarding them both for their unwavering submission.
Later, Ibrahim returned to Mecca, where Ismail
helped his father in building the Kaba.
After the passing of Hajar, Prophet Ibrahim visited Ismail’s
family twice. During Prophet Ibrahim’s
first visit, he found Ismail’s
wife lamenting their hardships. On Ibrahim's
advice , Ismail
divorced his first wife and married Sayyidah bint Mudad.
On Prophet Ibrahim’s second visit, Ismail’s
new wife praised their life and Ibrahim
encouraged Ismail to keep her.
Prophet Ismail was known for speaking eloquent Arabic, influenced by the Arab tribes around him. He was a messenger to his people and those in the surrounding areas, and the people of Yemen.
Prophet Ismail had twelve sons, including Nabit and Qeedhar, whom all of the Arabs in Hijaz trace their lineage to.
Upon his death at the age of 137, he was buried near his mother in the compound of al-Hijr.
[ISAC]
Allah informed Ibrahim through angels that he would have a son named Ishaq. These angels were on their way to punish the people of Lot due to their wrongdoing. When the angels visited Ibrahim
, he initially treated them as guests, offering them a roasted calf. However, when they did not eat, he became afraid. The angels reassured him, saying they were sent to bring him glad tidings and that his wife, Sarah, would bear a son despite her old age. This news astonished Sarah, who expressed disbelief at having a child when she and Ibrahim
were so old.
Ibrahim was 100 years old and Sarah was 90 when Ishaq
was born, fourteen years after the birth of Ishmael
. Allah praised Ishaq as a prophet and righteous individual, and from him and his descendants, many righteous people would arise.
Ishaq married Rifqa and they had twin sons, Al-Eis (Esau) and Yaqub (Jacob). Al-Eis was envious of Ya‘qoob
. When threats became severe, Ya‘qoob
left their homeland but eventually returned to visit his father, Ishaq
.
Ishaq lived to be 180 years old, and upon his death, his sons buried him next to his father, Ibrahim
.
[JACOB]
[JOSEPH]
PHOENICIAN CIVILISATION
c. 1500 BCE – 300 BCE
Eastern Mediterranean
Maritime traders who created the first alphabet, established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, and were renowned for their purple dye and seafaring expertise.
The Phoenician Civilization flourished along the eastern Mediterranean coast in what is now Lebanon, Syria, and northern Israel from approximately 1500 BCE to 300 BCE. Their major cities included Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad. Through their colonies, they established a presence across the Mediterranean basin, including in North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain, with Carthage becoming the most prominent Phoenician colony.
Developed the first true alphabet, which became the foundation for Greek, Latin, and many modern writing systems.
Established a vast trade network spanning the entire Mediterranean region.
Created the famous "Tyrian purple" dye from murex shellfish, highly prized in the ancient world.
Pioneered advanced shipbuilding techniques and navigational methods.
Founded numerous colonies including Carthage, which became a major Mediterranean power.
Phoenician society was urban and merchant-focused, organized around independent city-states with distinct identities. Each city was governed by a king with councils of wealthy merchants. Their culture emphasized practical knowledge, commercial acumen, and seafaring skills. Though few Phoenician texts survive, they were known for their literature, with references to their works appearing in Greek and Roman sources.
Phoenicians worshipped a pantheon of deities, with Baal (storm god), Astarte (fertility goddess), and Melqart (protector of cities) being particularly prominent. Each city had its own patron deity. Religious practices included temple worship, sacrifices, and festivals. The controversial practice of child sacrifice (tophet) may have occurred in times of crisis, though the extent is debated by scholars. Sacred locations often included natural features like mountains and springs.
Phoenician cities operated as independent city-states, each ruled by a hereditary king. The king's power was balanced by councils of nobles and wealthy merchant elites. This oligarchic element grew stronger over time, with merchant families gaining increasing influence. Despite their independence, Phoenician cities often united in trade ventures and colonial establishments, and they frequently paid tribute to regional powers like Assyria, Babylon, and Persia rather than engage in direct warfare.
Trade formed the backbone of Phoenician prosperity. Their merchant fleets transported goods across the Mediterranean, including precious metals from Spain, ivory from Africa, glassware from their own workshops, cedarwood from Lebanon, and luxury items from across the Near East. They established trading posts that evolved into colonies, creating networks that facilitated commerce. Famous exports included purple dye, fine textiles, carved ivory, metalwork, and glass. Their commercial system included sophisticated financial arrangements and standardized weights.
Created the first true alphabetic writing system with 22 consonants.
Developed advanced shipbuilding techniques for long-distance maritime trade.
Mastered glass production techniques including colored glass and glass blowing.
Pioneered purple dye extraction from murex shellfish.
Excelled in metalworking, textile production, and ivory carving.
Phoenicians focused more on commerce than conquest, often preferring to pay tribute to larger powers rather than engage in direct conflict. Their naval expertise translated into impressive maritime defenses, with city harbors protected by sophisticated fortifications. When necessary, they employed mercenaries to supplement city militias. Their greatest military contributions came through their colonies, particularly Carthage, which developed significant land and naval forces that eventually challenged Rome.
Constructed temples and palaces using Lebanese cedar wood.
Excelled in ivory carving, combining Egyptian, Assyrian, and Greek motifs.
Created fine metalwork including gold jewelry and bronze ceremonial items.
Produced distinctive pottery and glassware with innovative techniques.
Built harbor facilities with sophisticated breakwaters and docking structures.
The Phoenician homeland gradually lost independence as it came under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and finally Greek control after Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 BCE. Their greatest legacy was the alphabet, which was adopted by the Greeks and eventually evolved into the Latin alphabet used today. Their maritime expertise, colonial model, and trading practices influenced Mediterranean development for centuries. Through Carthage, their cultural influence persisted until its destruction by Rome in 146 BCE, though elements of their culture survived in North Africa.
The people of Madyan were an Arab tribe residing in a city near Syria and the Dead Sea. They engaged in highway robbery, idol worship, and were particularly dishonest in trade, often measuring in excess when buying and in deficiency when selling. Their primary deity was al-Aikah, a tree.
To guide the people of Madyan away from their corrupt practices, Allah sent Prophet Shuaib . He called upon his people to worship Allah alone and renounce their immoral behaviours. Shuaib
called them to give fair measurements and weights in trade.
Prophet Shu’aib emphasised the value of halal (permissible) earnings, stating that they are blessed, even if they are small, while haram (forbidden) earnings are worthless, even in abundance. Shu’aib
cautioned them about the fate of earlier disbelieving nations, such as the people of Nuh
, Hud
, Saleh
, and Lut
. Prophet Shuaib
urged his people to seek forgiveness and reform their ways. However, the people mocked him, and accused him of being weak.
Despite Prophet Shuaib's persistent warnings and pleas, most of them remained defiant and continued in their disobedience.
As a result, Allah inflicted multiple forms of punishment on them. They experienced intense heat. When they sought relief under a cloud, thinking it would bring rain, the cloud instead rained down ashes and cinder. They were also hit by a powerful earthquake and a thunderous blast, which caused their immediate destruction.
[MOSES]
[AARON]
c. 1200 BCE
CELTIC CIVILISATIONS
c. 1200 BCE – 600 CE
Western and Central Europe
A diverse group of tribal societies known for their metalwork, oral traditions, and distinctive art styles that spread across Europe before Roman conquest.
Celtic civilizations emerged in Central Europe around 1200 BCE and spread across much of Western Europe by 500 BCE. Their influence extended from Ireland and Britain to Spain, France, Central Europe, and even parts of Turkey (Galatia). The period of greatest Celtic cultural expansion occurred during the La Tène period (450-50 BCE), with Celtic political power declining after Roman conquest, though Celtic culture persisted in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales well into the medieval period (600 CE).
Created sophisticated metalwork with distinctive artistic styles.
Developed advanced iron-working techniques and weaponry.
Established complex trade networks across Europe.
Maintained rich oral traditions preserved in later written mythologies.
Built impressive fortified settlements (oppida) and ceremonial structures.
Celtic society was tribal and hierarchical, typically divided into three main classes: warrior aristocracy, religious specialists (druids), and commoners. Kinship played a central role in social organization, with tribes led by kings or chiefs. Women had relatively high status compared to Mediterranean societies, with some becoming warriors, religious leaders, or rulers. Celtic cultures valued hospitality, feasting, storytelling, and martial prowess. Their languages, part of the Indo-European family, survive today in Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton.
Celtic religion was polytheistic, with hundreds of deities often associated with natural features, tribal groups, and specific skills. Worship centered around sacred groves, springs, and other natural sites rather than temples. Druids served as priests, judges, educators, and keepers of oral tradition. Religious practices included votive offerings to water sources, ceremonial feasting, and possibly human sacrifice in certain contexts. Belief in an afterlife is evidenced by elaborate burial goods. Major festivals marked seasonal cycles, including Samhain (November), Imbolc (February), Beltane (May), and Lughnasadh (August).
Celtic political organization centered around tribes (tuatha) led by kings or chieftains whose power depended on personal wealth, military prowess, and generosity to followers. Councils of elders or nobles provided advice. Leadership was often fluid, with tribes forming confederations or fragmenting based on circumstances. Druids functioned as legal authorities, settling disputes through oral law traditions. By the late Iron Age, some Celtic societies developed more complex political structures, with oppida (large fortified settlements) serving as political and economic centers.
The Celtic economy combined agriculture, pastoralism, mining, and craft production. They traded extensively with Mediterranean civilizations, exporting metals, slaves, amber, and salt while importing wine, pottery, and luxury goods. Cattle were a primary form of wealth, commemorated in art and literature. Agricultural innovations included the heavy plow suited to European soils. Mining was highly developed, particularly for iron, gold, and tin. Market centers developed at tribal capitals and oppida, where coinage was eventually adopted (influenced by Greek and Roman models).
Mastered advanced ironworking techniques, producing superior weapons and tools.
Invented chain mail armor, improving battlefield protection.
Developed the rotary quern for grain processing, increasing food production.
Created the wooden barrel, superior to amphorae for liquid transport.
Designed efficient chariots and later, advanced wheeled vehicles including the carbantom (war wagon).
Celtic warriors were renowned for their fierceness in battle, often fighting as individuals seeking personal glory. Elite warriors fought from chariots before dismounting for individual combat. Warriors typically used long swords, spears, and large shields, with some fighting unarmored to display bravery. Tribal warfare was common, but Celts also served as mercenaries for Mediterranean powers. By the late La Tène period, more organized military tactics emerged, though they remained at a disadvantage against the disciplined Roman legions.
Created intricate abstract and zoomorphic designs in metalwork.
Developed the distinctive La Tène art style with curvilinear patterns.
Built large fortified settlements (oppida) with sophisticated planning.
Constructed impressive ritual sites and earthworks.
Produced elaborate jewelry, helmets, and ceremonial objects combining functional design with artistic expression.
Celtic political power declined through Roman conquest of Gaul, Britain, and other Celtic territories by the 1st century CE, though Celtic culture persisted. In Ireland and parts of Britain beyond Roman control, Celtic societies continued to develop independently. The legacy of Celtic civilizations includes linguistic contributions (Celtic languages), distinctive artistic styles that influenced medieval European art, literary traditions preserved in Irish and Welsh manuscripts, and cultural practices that merged with later Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions to shape medieval European civilization.
[DAVID]
[SOLOMAN]
ZHOU DYNASTY
c. 1046 BCE – 256 BCE
China
China's longest-lasting dynasty, which developed the Mandate of Heaven concept, Confucianism, Taoism, and sophisticated bronze technology.
The Zhou Dynasty ruled ancient China from approximately 1046 BCE to 256 BCE, making it the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history. The period is divided into the Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE), when the capital was located near modern Xi'an, and the Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE), after the capital moved eastward to Luoyang. The Eastern Zhou is further subdivided into the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE). The dynasty controlled territories in the Yellow River valley and expanded into the Yangtze River region.
Developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, justifying legitimate rule.
Fostered the emergence of Confucianism, Taoism, and other philosophical schools during the "Hundred Schools of Thought" period.
Advanced bronze technology, creating complex vessels with sophisticated decorations.
Established a feudal system that evolved into a bureaucratic administration.
Created early forms of the Chinese writing system that evolved into modern Chinese characters.
Zhou society was highly stratified, with the king at the top, followed by the aristocracy, commoners, and slaves. The family was the basic social unit, with filial piety (respect for parents and ancestors) as a core value. Ancestor worship played a central role in family life. The Eastern Zhou period saw the rise of a scholarly class of shi (gentlemen) who served as advisors and officials. Cultural achievements included poetry (collected in the Shijing or Book of Songs), music, and ritual bronzes for ceremonial use.
Zhou religious practices centered around ancestor worship and veneration of Heaven (Tian). The Zhou rulers claimed legitimacy through the Mandate of Heaven concept, which held that Heaven granted the right to rule to those who governed justly and virtuously. Divination remained important, though oracle bones were replaced by the I Ching (Book of Changes). During the Eastern Zhou, diverse philosophical and religious traditions emerged, including Confucianism (emphasizing social order and morality), Daoism (advocating harmony with nature), Legalism (promoting strict laws), and Mohism (advocating universal love).
The Western Zhou established a proto-feudal system where the king granted territories to relatives and allies who became hereditary lords. This system declined during the Eastern Zhou as feudal states grew more independent and powerful. Administrative innovations included dividing territories into provinces and counties. During the Warring States period, states like Qin pioneered centralized bureaucracy based on merit rather than birth, laying groundwork for China's imperial system. Record-keeping and written law codes developed to support governance.
The Zhou economy was primarily agricultural, with millet as the main crop in the north and rice cultivation expanding in the south. Iron tools appeared during the Eastern Zhou, improving agricultural productivity. Commerce grew with standardized copper coins replacing barter. Cities became centers of craft specialization and trade. Technical advancements included improved irrigation systems, ox-drawn plows, and iron metallurgy. Sericulture (silk production) became an important industry and trade commodity.
Mastered iron smelting and production, revolutionizing agriculture and warfare.
Perfected sophisticated bronze casting techniques for ritual vessels.
Developed early hydraulic engineering for irrigation and flood control.
Created crossbow technology, changing military tactics.
Advanced astronomical observations used for calendar systems.
Military organization evolved dramatically during the Zhou period. The Western Zhou relied on aristocratic warriors in chariots supported by infantry. By the Warring States period, mass infantry armies dominated warfare, with crossbows and cavalry becoming increasingly important. Iron weapons replaced bronze. Military strategy became more sophisticated, documented in works like Sunzi's Art of War. Massive battles involving hundreds of thousands of soldiers occurred as states competed for dominance, leading to the rise of professional armies.
Created intricate bronze vessels with detailed decorative patterns.
Developed jade carving to extraordinary levels of refinement.
Built rammed earth fortifications, including early sections of the Great Wall.
Produced lacquerware using sophisticated techniques.
Established distinctive architectural styles for palaces and temples with wooden frames.
The Zhou Dynasty formally ended in 256 BCE when the state of Qin conquered the Zhou court, though Zhou kings had been figureheads for centuries. The Qin would go on to unite all warring states and establish the first imperial dynasty in 221 BCE. Despite its political decline, the Zhou Dynasty left an enduring cultural legacy. Confucian philosophy, which emerged during this period, shaped Chinese social and political thought for over two millennia. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven continued to legitimate imperial rule. Zhou administrative innovations, technological developments, and cultural achievements laid the foundation for Chinese civilization.
CHAVÍN CIVILISATION
c. 900 BCE – 200 BCE
Peru
An early Andean civilization known for its religious center at Chavín de Huántar, distinctive art style, and wide-ranging cultural influence.
The Chavín Civilization developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru from approximately 900 BCE to 200 BCE. Named after its principal ceremonial center, Chavín de Huántar, located at 3,180 meters above sea level in the Ancash region, its influence extended throughout Peru's coastal and highland regions. Chavín culture emerged from earlier traditions and played a key role in developing religious and artistic concepts that influenced subsequent Andean civilizations.
Created an influential religious complex at Chavín de Huántar with sophisticated architecture.
Developed a distinctive artistic style that spread throughout the central Andes.
Established one of the earliest pan-Andean religious movements.
Built complex underground water channels showing advanced hydraulic engineering.
Crafted intricate stonework including the famous Lanzón monolith and Tello Obelisk.
Chavín society appears to have been centered around religious authority, with religious elites likely directing large-scale construction and ceremonial activities. Social stratification is evident in burial practices and access to ritual spaces. Pilgrims from distant regions traveled to Chavín de Huántar for religious ceremonies, suggesting its importance as a pan-regional cultural center. Evidence of hallucinogenic plant use in rituals indicates shamanic practices that may have reinforced religious authority through controlled access to supernatural experiences.
Chavín religion centered around the worship of anthropomorphic deities with feline, avian, and serpent characteristics, symbolizing the powers of the land, sky, and underworld. The most prominent deity was the Staff God, depicted on the Lanzón monolith at the heart of the Chavín de Huántar temple complex. Religious ceremonies likely involved pilgrimages, offerings, and sensory manipulation through acoustic engineering, darkness, and hallucinogenic substances like San Pedro cactus. Ritual practices emphasized the transformation between human and animal states, reflecting shamanic beliefs about spiritual journeys.
The political structure of Chavín society remains somewhat enigmatic. Evidence suggests a theocratic system where religious leaders held significant authority. The scale and sophistication of construction at Chavín de Huántar indicate the ability to organize large labor forces over extended periods. Unlike later Andean civilizations like the Inca, there is little evidence of military infrastructure or conquest, suggesting authority was maintained through religious prestige rather than force. The wide distribution of Chavín art styles may indicate a form of religious colonialism or alliance network rather than direct political control.
The Chavín economy combined highland agriculture (potatoes, quinoa) with access to resources from multiple ecological zones through trade networks. Evidence at Chavín de Huántar shows materials from the Amazon (exotic feathers, hallucinogenic plants), the coast (shellfish, marine products), and other distant regions. This suggests an elaborate exchange system linking diverse environments. Craft specialization is evident in sophisticated metalwork, stone carving, and ceramic production. The religious center likely functioned as both a pilgrimage destination and a marketplace, facilitating exchange between different regions.
Engineered sophisticated hydraulic systems including underground canals and drainage networks.
Developed advanced stone-cutting and setting techniques for monumental architecture.
Created acoustic spaces where rushing water through channels produced jaguar-like roars for ritual effect.
Mastered goldwork techniques including hammering, embossing, and soldering.
Designed architectural spaces to manipulate light, sound, and human movement for ceremonial purposes.
Unlike later Andean civilizations, there is little archaeological evidence of extensive warfare or military organization in Chavín culture. Defensive structures are notably absent at major sites, and artistic representations focus on religious rather than military themes. This suggests that Chavín influence spread through religious prestige and trade networks rather than conquest. However, some iconography does depict warriors or trophy heads, indicating that limited warfare or ritualized conflict may have occurred.
Built the ceremonial center of Chavín de Huántar with complex galleries, plazas, and platforms.
Created distinctive stone carvings featuring anthropomorphic deities with animal attributes.
Produced the Lanzón monolith, a 4.5-meter stone carving at the heart of the temple complex.
Developed a characteristic artistic style featuring symmetry, transformation, and interlocking designs.
Crafted fine ceramics, textiles, and goldwork incorporating religious iconography.
Chavín culture declined around 200 BCE, with the ceremonial center gradually abandoned. The reasons remain debated but may include environmental changes, the rise of competing religious centers, or shifting trade patterns. Despite its end, Chavín left a profound legacy on Andean civilization. Its religious concepts, artistic motifs, and architectural principles influenced subsequent cultures including Paracas, Moche, and eventually the Inca. Chavín represented one of the first instances of a shared cultural horizon across the diverse environments of the Andes, establishing patterns of religious authority and inter-regional exchange that would characterize later Andean civilizations.
CARTHAGINIAN EMPIRE
c. 814 BCE – 146 BCE
North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria)
A powerful maritime civilization founded by Phoenicians that dominated western Mediterranean trade and fought Rome in the Punic Wars.
The Carthaginian Empire originated in the city of Carthage (near modern Tunis, Tunisia), founded around 814 BCE by Phoenician settlers from Tyre. From this North African base, Carthage established control over the western Mediterranean, including territories in North Africa, southern Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. Carthage rose to prominence after the 6th century BCE decline of its Phoenician parent cities, becoming a major rival to Rome until its destruction in 146 BCE at the end of the Third Punic War.
Established the Mediterranean's most powerful maritime trading network.
Created an agricultural system that made North Africa a breadbasket of the ancient world.
Developed advanced naval technology and navigation techniques.
Pioneered new military strategies under Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War.
Built one of the ancient world's largest and most sophisticated harbors at Carthage.
Carthaginian society was highly stratified, dominated by wealthy merchant families who controlled both economic and political power. Although heavily influenced by their Phoenician heritage, Carthage developed a distinct culture blending Phoenician traditions with North African elements and influences from their diverse trading partners. Urban life centered around commerce, with social status determined largely by wealth. Citizens enjoyed luxury goods from across the Mediterranean, while slaves performed much of the labor. Though little Carthaginian literature survives due to Roman destruction, they maintained a sophisticated written culture.
Carthaginian religion derived from Phoenician traditions, worshipping deities like Baal Hammon (chief god) and Tanit (goddess of fertility). Religious practices included animal sacrifice and possibly child sacrifice (tophet) during times of crisis, though the extent of the latter practice remains debated. Temple complexes dominated the cityscape, with priests holding significant political influence. Funerary customs included elaborate tombs for the wealthy. Religious syncretism occurred as Carthage absorbed elements from Greek, Egyptian, and indigenous North African spiritual traditions over time.
Carthage developed a complex political system evolving from monarchy toward oligarchy. By the 4th century BCE, the government featured a Council of Elders (similar to the Roman Senate), a smaller Council of 104 judges, and two annually elected suffetes (chief magistrates). Military leadership was separate from civil authority, with generals appointed for specific campaigns. This sophisticated system included checks and balances to prevent any individual from gaining too much power, though in practice, a few wealthy families dominated government. The Barcid family gained exceptional influence during the Punic Wars period.
Carthage controlled the western Mediterranean economy through its maritime trade network, commercial treaties, and strategic harbors. Their merchants exchanged manufactured goods, textiles, and luxury items from across the Mediterranean for raw materials like silver from Spain, tin from Britain, and gold from Africa. Agriculture provided another economic pillar, with extensive olive and grain production on North African estates worked by indigenous labor. Carthaginians were renowned for their entrepreneurial acumen, with Mago's agricultural treatise so valued that the Romans had it translated after Carthage's destruction. Other economic activities included purple dye production, metalworking, and shipbuilding.
Developed advanced shipbuilding techniques, including the swift quinquereme warship.
Created sophisticated harbor facilities with dry docks and specialized naval arsenals.
Pioneered agricultural innovations documented in Mago's influential 28-volume work.
Advanced mining techniques in their Spanish territories.
Created the cothon, an artificial circular harbor with advanced hydraulic engineering.
The Carthaginian military combined a powerful navy with armies largely composed of mercenaries from diverse regions. Their naval prowess was legendary, with specialized warships including the quinquereme enabling control of Mediterranean sea lanes. Land forces featured North African, Spanish, Gallic, and Balearic troops, each contributing specialized fighting styles. War elephants became a signature element after conflicts with Pyrrhus of Epirus. Hannibal Barca revolutionized military tactics during the Second Punic War, notably at the Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) where his double-envelopment tactic destroyed a larger Roman army. Carthage's city defenses were formidable, with triple walls protecting the landward side.
Built impressive city walls and harbor facilities at Carthage.
Created distinctive sarcophagi and funerary art blending Phoenician and Hellenistic influences.
Produced fine jewelry and metalwork exported throughout the Mediterranean.
Constructed massive temples to Tanit and Baal Hammon.
Developed unique architectural styles incorporating elements from their diverse cultural contacts.
Carthage's power was systematically dismantled through three Punic Wars with Rome (264-146 BCE). The First Punic War cost Carthage its Mediterranean islands, the Second saw Hannibal's initial successes followed by defeat and the loss of Spain, while the Third ended with Carthage's complete destruction in 146 BCE. The Romans razed the city, sold its population into slavery, and allegedly salted the earth (though this is likely myth). Despite its physical destruction, Carthaginian agricultural techniques, navigational knowledge, and administrative systems influenced Roman practices. The city was later rebuilt as Roman Carthage, becoming important again in Late Antiquity. Carthage's most enduring legacy was as Rome's greatest adversary, with figures like Hannibal remaining symbols of military genius.
[JOB]
[JONAH]
PERSIAN EMPIRE
c. 550 BCE – 330 BCE
Iran, Middle East, Central Asia
The first world empire, uniting diverse cultures under an innovative administrative system with religious tolerance and sophisticated infrastructure.
The Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BCE and lasted until Alexander the Great's conquest in 330 BCE. At its height under Darius I (521-486 BCE), it stretched from the Balkans and Egypt in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, encompassing modern Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Egypt, Pakistan, and parts of Greece, Central Asia, and North Africa. With its capitals at Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis, it was the largest empire the world had yet seen.
Created the first true world empire, uniting diverse cultures under one rule.
Developed innovative administrative systems including standardized coinage and postal networks.
Built the Royal Road, a 1,500-mile highway system with relay stations.
Established principles of religious tolerance and cultural pluralism in governance.
Constructed magnificent architectural complexes showcasing imperial power and artistic fusion.
Persian imperial society was diverse and multinational, with the empire functioning as a tapestry of different peoples maintaining their local cultures under Persian oversight. At the top stood the Persian nobility and the royal Achaemenid family, while a cosmopolitan elite of administrators from various ethnic backgrounds managed the empire. Social mobility was possible through military or administrative service. The imperial court culture emphasized luxury, protocol, and diplomatic ceremony. Persian kings promoted cultural exchange, collecting and preserving knowledge from across their realms.
The Achaemenid Persians practiced Zoroastrianism, one of the world's earliest monotheistic religions, which emphasized the cosmic struggle between truth (Asha) and falsehood, the importance of good thoughts, words, and deeds, and veneration of Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity. However, Persian kings established a policy of religious tolerance that was revolutionary for its time. They respected local religious practices, restored temples, and sometimes participated in local rites. King Cyrus famously freed the Jews from Babylonian captivity and supported the rebuilding of their temple in Jerusalem.
The Persian Empire pioneered effective techniques for governing a vast multinational state. The king, considered the "King of Kings," held absolute authority but delegated power to satraps (governors) who administered the empire's 20+ provinces. A sophisticated bureaucracy collected taxes, maintained records in multiple languages, and communicated using a royal postal system. The king's "eyes and ears" (inspectors) monitored provincial officials to prevent corruption or rebellion. Royal inscriptions emphasized the king's role as bringer of peace, order, and justice to diverse peoples.
The Persian Empire created the world's first truly international economy, connecting markets from Greece to India. A standardized system of coinage, weights, and measures facilitated trade, while royal roads and way stations improved transportation. Annual tribute from provinces flowed to the imperial center in both coin and precious goods. Royal support for agriculture included irrigation projects and introduction of new crops across regions. Archaeological evidence shows luxury goods moving vast distances, with imperial elites enjoying products from throughout the empire and beyond.
Developed sophisticated water management including underground aqueducts (qanats).
Created an efficient postal system with relay stations for rapid communication.
Standardized coinage for consistent economic transactions across diverse regions.
Built bridges using innovative engineering techniques.
Advanced metal-working technologies for weapons, tools, and artistic objects.
The Persian military combined diverse forces from across the empire into a powerful war machine. At its core was the elite 10,000-strong Immortals corps, supported by cavalry, chariots, and infantry drawn from various subject peoples. Military service offered a path to advancement for common people. The empire maintained a strong navy using Phoenician and Greek ships and crews. Persian armies were known for their discipline, archery skills, and ability to operate in varied terrain. While initially successful in conquests, the military eventually struggled against Greek hoplite tactics during the Greco-Persian Wars.
Built magnificent palace complexes at Persepolis, Susa, and Pasargadae.
Created monumental stone reliefs depicting imperial ceremonies and tribute processions.
Developed a distinctive artistic style merging elements from various conquered civilizations.
Crafted intricate metalwork including the famed Oxus Treasure.
Designed impressive ceremonial spaces with columned halls (apadana) and grand staircases.
The Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BCE after his decisive victory at the Battle of Gaugamela and subsequent capture of the Persian capitals. However, its administrative techniques, cultural policies, and concept of universal empire influenced all subsequent empires in the region, including the Seleucid, Parthian, Sasanian, and even Islamic caliphates. The Persian model of imperial governance—provincial organization, standardized coinage, official road networks, and cultural tolerance—became the template for large multi-ethnic empires worldwide. Persian cultural and artistic elements spread widely, influencing Greek, Indian, and Central Asian traditions.
509 BCE
ROMAN REPUBLIC
c. 509 BCE – 27 BCE
Italy, Mediterranean
A sophisticated Mediterranean power that developed representative government, extensive legal codes, and military innovations while expanding from a city-state to control the Mediterranean basin.
The Roman Republic existed from approximately 509 BCE, following the overthrow of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, until 27 BCE when Octavian (Augustus) established the Principate, marking the beginning of the Roman Empire. Starting as a small city-state on the Tiber River in central Italy, Rome gradually expanded to control the entire Italian peninsula by 275 BCE, and by the late Republic (1st century BCE), dominated the Mediterranean world including North Africa, much of Western Europe, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, and the Levant.
Developed a complex constitutional system with checks and balances.
Created a sophisticated legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems.
Built extensive infrastructure including roads, aqueducts, and public facilities.
Established effective administrative systems for governing diverse territories.
Created military innovations that allowed successful expansion across the Mediterranean.
Roman society was hierarchical, divided between patricians (aristocracy), plebeians (commoners), and slaves. The family (familia) formed the basic social unit, with the paterfamilias (male head of household) holding significant legal authority. Romans valued virtues including dignitas (dignity), gravitas (seriousness), and pietas (duty). Cultural life featured public games, theater, and literature heavily influenced by Greek models. Education emphasized rhetoric, history, and practical knowledge for elite males. Women had more rights than in many ancient societies, though still limited compared to men.
Roman religion was polytheistic and highly practical, focusing more on ritual correctness than personal belief. The state religion featured numerous deities associated with aspects of daily life and civic functions, with Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva forming the Capitoline Triad at the center of worship. Religious practice emphasized the pax deorum (peace with the gods) through proper rituals. Priests were public officials rather than separate clergy. As the Republic expanded, it incorporated foreign cults including mystery religions from the east. Divination and augury (reading omens) guided important decisions, especially in politics and warfare.
The Roman Republic developed a complex constitutional system balancing different elements of society. Power was distributed among several institutions: the Senate (advisory body of elite citizens), various popular assemblies, and annually elected magistrates including consuls (chief executives), praetors (judges), and tribunes (representatives of plebeians). The system featured checks and balances including collegiality (magistrates served in pairs), term limits, and veto powers. As Rome expanded, provincial governors administered conquered territories. The late Republic saw increasing instability as powerful generals like Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar challenged constitutional norms, eventually leading to civil wars and the Republic's transformation into the Empire under Augustus.
The Roman Republican economy evolved from a primarily agricultural base into a complex system integrating farming, manufacturing, and extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean. Agriculture remained the foundation, with large estates (latifundia) increasingly replacing small family farms. Commerce flourished with standardized coinage, legal contracts, and banking services. Conquest brought enormous wealth including slaves, precious metals, and tribute from provinces. Rome established a unified economic zone with reduced barriers, standardized weights and measures, and protection from piracy. Public works including roads, harbors, and warehouses facilitated trade, while state contracts for supplying the army and building infrastructure created opportunities for the business class (equites).
Pioneered concrete construction enabling new architectural forms like arches and domes.
Built an extensive road network (over 250,000 miles) connecting the Mediterranean world.
Developed sophisticated aqueduct systems bringing fresh water to cities.
Created standardized building techniques allowing rapid urban development.
Improved military engineering including siege weapons and standardized fortifications.
The Roman military evolved from a citizen militia into a professional fighting force that conquered the Mediterranean world. The legion, Rome's primary military unit, was known for discipline, adaptability, and engineering skills. Key innovations included the manipular system (flexible tactical units), standardized equipment including the gladius (short sword) and scutum (shield), and the cohort system introduced during Marius's reforms. The army built roads, bridges, and fortifications during campaigns, improving logistics and communication. Military service provided a path to citizenship for allies and, later, provincials. By the late Republic, generals commanded loyal personal armies, threatening the state's stability.
Built impressive public structures including temples, forums, and basilicas.
Created realistic portrait sculpture reflecting individual characteristics.
Developed practical architectural innovations like arches, vaults, and domes.
Crafted detailed mosaics and wall paintings decorating public and private spaces.
Adapted Greek artistic traditions while developing a distinctive Roman aesthetic.
The Republic gradually destabilized through several factors: socioeconomic tensions as wealth from conquest concentrated among elites; the rise of powerful generals commanding personal armies; inadequate governance structures for a Mediterranean-wide state; and increasing political violence. Civil wars in the first century BCE culminated in Octavian (Augustus) establishing the Principate in 27 BCE, effectively ending the Republic while maintaining its forms. The Roman Republic's legacy includes concepts of representative government, separation of powers, and legal principles that influenced modern democratic systems. Its literary, architectural, and engineering achievements established standards emulated for centuries. Latin, the Republic's language, remained Europe's scholarly language into the modern era and evolved into the Romance languages spoken by nearly a billion people today.
499-449 BCE
c. 500 BCE
[EZRA]
431-404 BCE
334-323 BCE
c. 322 BCE
264-241 BCE
221-206 BCE
206 BCE-220 CE
NAZCA CIVILISATION
c. 100 BCE – 800 CE
Peru
An Andean civilization known for creating the enigmatic Nazca Lines, sophisticated textiles, and advanced hydraulic engineering in an arid environment.
The Nazca Civilization flourished in the river valleys and arid coastal plain of southern Peru from approximately 100 BCE to 800 CE. Centered in the Nazca and adjacent valleys, this pre-Columbian culture developed in one of the world's driest regions, between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific coast. The Nazca culture emerged from the earlier Paracas culture and eventually declined with the rise of the Wari Empire, which expanded into the region around 700 CE.
Created the famous Nazca Lines, enormous geoglyphs etched into the desert plateau.
Developed sophisticated underground aqueducts (puquios) that still function today.
Produced exquisite polychrome pottery with distinctive iconography.
Crafted extraordinarily fine textiles with complex weaving techniques.
Practiced cranial modification as part of cultural identity and social differentiation.
Nazca society was organized into distinct settlements with ceremonial centers, suggesting a federation of communities rather than a centralized state. Social hierarchy is reflected in burial patterns, with elites receiving elaborate tombs containing fine ceramics and textiles. Trophy head taking was practiced as part of ritual life, with decapitated heads carefully preserved. There is evidence for specialized craft production, with certain valleys focusing on specific goods. Cultural practices included music (as shown by ceramic instruments), feasting, and possibly pilgrimages to sacred sites.
Nazca religion appears to have been centered around agricultural fertility, water, and natural forces. Iconography on ceramics depicts anthropomorphic mythical beings, often combining human features with those of animals including killer whales, falcons, and serpents. The famous Nazca Lines likely had religious significance, possibly serving as ritual pathways, astronomical alignments, or offerings to deities who could be viewed from above. Evidence suggests shamanic practices involving hallucinogenic plants like San Pedro cactus. Water was central to religious belief in this arid environment, with rituals aimed at ensuring rainfall and agricultural bounty.
The political organization of the Nazca culture likely involved local leaders or elites governing individual valleys or communities rather than a centralized empire. Archaeological evidence indicates ceremonial centers that may have served administrative functions alongside religious roles. The consistency of artistic styles and religious imagery across the region suggests coordination and shared cultural identity, even without strong political centralization. Trophy head taking may have been connected to power and authority, with elite individuals demonstrating prowess through ritualized conflict with neighboring groups.
Despite the extreme aridity, the Nazca economy was primarily agricultural, relying on sophisticated irrigation techniques to grow crops including maize, beans, squash, and cotton. Fishing and shellfish gathering supplemented the diet in coastal communities. Trade connections linked the region with the highlands for obsidian and other materials, and possibly with other coastal cultures. Specialized craft production included pottery, textiles, and gold work, with evidence of dedicated workshops. Resource management was crucial in this harsh environment, with water rights likely carefully regulated within and between communities.
Engineered puquios (underground aqueducts) to access groundwater in the desert.
Developed techniques to create the massive Nazca Lines with remarkable precision.
Advanced textile technologies including complex weaving and dyeing methods.
Created sophisticated ceramic production techniques for thin-walled vessels.
Practiced advanced agricultural techniques to maximize production in an arid environment.
Evidence for warfare in Nazca culture comes primarily from trophy head taking, which appears in iconography and archaeological findings. However, large-scale military organization seems limited compared to other Andean civilizations. Conflict may have been primarily ritualized or focused on small-scale raiding rather than territorial conquest. There is little evidence of fortifications or extensive weapons production, suggesting that military activity was not central to Nazca society. The lack of defensive architecture may indicate that competition between communities was managed through other social mechanisms including religious ritual and exchange relationships.
Created the enigmatic Nazca Lines covering nearly 1,000 square kilometers.
Produced polychrome ceramics with up to 15 distinct colors and naturalistic imagery.
Crafted extraordinarily fine textiles with complex iconography and techniques.
Built ceremonial centers with plazas, platforms, and subterranean chambers.
Designed puquios (aqueducts) with spiraling access points for maintenance.
The Nazca Civilization began declining around 500 CE and had largely disappeared by 800 CE. Evidence suggests a series of devastating floods and droughts linked to extreme El Niño events contributed to ecological degradation and social breakdown. The expansion of the Wari Empire from the highlands into the region around 700 CE may have delivered the final blow to Nazca cultural independence. Despite their disappearance, the Nazca left an enduring legacy through their enigmatic geoglyphs, which remain one of archaeology's great mysteries, and their ingenious water management systems, some of which still function today. Their artistic traditions influenced subsequent Andean cultures, and their adaptations to extreme environmental conditions demonstrate remarkable human ingenuity.
[JOHN]
[JESUS]
44 BCE
KINGDOM OF AKSUM
c. 100 CE – 940 CE
Ethiopia, Eritrea
A powerful trading empire that controlled Red Sea commerce, developed a unique script and coinage, and became one of the first Christian kingdoms in Africa.
The Kingdom of Aksum flourished in the northern region of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 100 CE to 940 CE. Located in the Horn of Africa, Aksum controlled territories along the Red Sea coast and in parts of southern Arabia (modern Yemen), strategically positioned between the Mediterranean world and the Indian Ocean trade networks. The kingdom reached its height of power between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE before gradually declining due to shifting trade routes and environmental challenges.
Developed the Ge'ez script and language, still used in Ethiopian religious texts.
Created a sophisticated coinage system, rare in sub-Saharan Africa.
Built impressive monolithic stone stelae, including the 33-meter Great Stela.
Adopted Christianity around 330 CE, becoming one of the world's first Christian kingdoms.
Established a powerful trading empire connecting Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean.
Aksumite society was hierarchical with a powerful monarch at the top, followed by nobles, merchants, artisans, farmers, and slaves. The kingdom was cosmopolitan, absorbing cultural influences from its diverse trade partners while maintaining a distinct identity. After Christianity's adoption, religious practices became central to social life. Archaeological evidence shows urban planning in Aksum itself, with elite residences featuring stone construction and imported luxury goods. Cultural achievements included written literature in Ge'ez, architectural innovations, and sophisticated craftsmanship in metalworking and ivory carving.
Aksum's religious history divides into pre-Christian and Christian eras. Early Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion influenced by South Arabian traditions, worshipping deities like Astar (sky), Mahrem (war), and Beher (sea). King Ezana converted to Christianity around 330 CE, making Aksum one of the earliest Christian states. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church developed distinctive traditions including unique architectural styles for churches, some carved entirely from rock. According to Ethiopian tradition, Aksum housed the Ark of the Covenant, brought by Menelik I, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Jewish influences are also evident in religious practices maintained to this day.
Aksum was ruled by a monarch with extensive powers, styled as "King of Kings" (Negusa Nagast). Royal inscriptions detail military campaigns, administrative decrees, and religious policies. The administration included provincial governors and local officials who collected taxes and maintained order. Coinage featuring royal portraits and inscriptions served both economic and propaganda purposes, projecting royal authority throughout the realm. The kingdom maintained diplomatic relations with major powers including the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Persia. After Christianization, the Church became intertwined with governance, with clergy advising rulers on policy matters.
Aksum's economy centered on international trade, with the kingdom controlling key Red Sea ports connecting Africa, Arabia, India, and the Mediterranean. Exports included ivory, gold, emeralds, slaves, exotic animals, and agricultural products. Imports featured textiles, metalwork, wine, olive oil, and luxury goods from as far as China. The kingdom's own gold, silver, and bronze coins facilitated commerce, with some found as far away as India. Agriculture provided the economic foundation, with terraced farming in the highlands producing grains, legumes, and fruits. Specialized crafts included metalworking, ivory carving, glass production, and textile manufacturing.
Developed monolithic stone carving techniques for massive stelae.
Created a sophisticated coinage system with gold, silver, and bronze denominations.
Built complex water management systems including reservoirs and channels.
Established advanced agricultural techniques including terracing on mountainsides.
Practiced sophisticated metallurgy for tools, weapons, coins, and decorative items.
Aksum maintained a powerful military that secured its trade routes and expanded its territory. Royal inscriptions describe campaigns against neighboring peoples and across the Red Sea into Arabia. The army likely combined infantry with cavalry elements, and some evidence suggests naval forces for controlling coastal areas. During the 6th century CE, King Kaleb launched a major expedition into Yemen to protect Christian communities there, demonstrating the kingdom's military reach. Aksumite warriors used iron weapons including swords and spears, complemented by bows and shields, with nobility possibly having access to imported armor.
Erected massive stone stelae, including the Great Stela standing 33 meters tall.
Built elaborate elite residences and palaces using stone masonry.
Created distinctive churches, some entirely carved from solid rock.
Crafted intricate gold and silver coinage with royal portraits.
Produced fine metalwork, ivory carvings, and pottery with decorative motifs.
Aksum began declining from the 7th century CE due to multiple factors: the rise of Islamic powers disrupted traditional trade routes; environmental degradation including deforestation and soil erosion reduced agricultural productivity; and climate change brought periods of drought. By 940 CE, the capital was abandoned, with political power shifting southward. Despite its decline, Aksum left a profound legacy as the foundation of Ethiopian cultural and religious identity. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church preserved Aksumite traditions, literature, and architectural styles. The concept of the Ethiopian monarchy traced its legitimacy directly to Aksum until the 20th century. Archaeological remains at Aksum, including the massive stelae field, continue to inspire awe and are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites.
TEOTIHUACAN CIVILISATION
c. 100 CE – 750 CE
Mexico
Mesoamerica's first major urban center, featuring monumental pyramids, planned grid layout, and widespread cultural influence across Central America.
The Teotihuacan Civilization developed in the Valley of Mexico, about 30 miles northeast of modern Mexico City, from approximately 100 CE to 750 CE. At its height (450-550 CE), the city of Teotihuacan covered nearly 8 square miles and housed an estimated 100,000-200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world at that time. Its influence extended throughout central Mexico and as far south as Guatemala and El Salvador, with evidence of Teotihuacan presence or cultural impact at many Mesoamerican sites.
Built monumental architecture including the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon.
Created a planned city with precise grid layout aligned to astronomical observations.
Developed extensive trade networks spanning much of Mesoamerica.
Pioneered multi-ethnic urban apartment compounds for thousands of residents.
Influenced art, architecture, and religious practices across Central America.
Teotihuacan society was highly structured and multiethnic, with neighborhoods dedicated to different ethnic groups including Maya, Zapotec, and Gulf Coast peoples. The population lived primarily in apartment compounds housing multiple families, with over 2,000 such complexes identified in the city. Social stratification is evident in housing and burial practices, though the gap between elites and commoners appears less extreme than in many other Mesoamerican societies. Evidence suggests a collective or council-based governance rather than rule by a single monarch. A merchant class facilitated trade, while specialized craft production occurred in designated districts for ceramics, obsidian working, and other goods.
Teotihuacan religion featured a complex pantheon with deities associated with natural forces. Major figures included the Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl), the Storm God (Tlaloc), and the Great Goddess associated with fertility and warfare. Religious practice centered around massive public ceremonies in the central Avenue of the Dead and the main pyramids. Human and animal sacrifice occurred as part of ritual observances, though apparently at a smaller scale than later Aztec practices. The cosmos was conceived as layered, with the city's layout reflecting the structure of the universe. Artistic motifs suggest belief in transformation between human and animal states, possibly associated with shamanic practices.
Unlike other Mesoamerican civilizations, Teotihuacan lacks clear evidence of dynastic rulers or royal imagery. Scholars believe the city may have been governed by a council of elites or a collective leadership structure, possibly representing different districts or ethnic groups. Administrative buildings along the Avenue of the Dead likely served as government headquarters. The orderly layout of the city and massive building projects demonstrate strong central planning and the ability to organize large labor forces. Teotihuacan established outposts or colonies in distant regions to secure resources and trade routes, suggesting sophisticated political administration beyond the city itself.
Teotihuacan controlled a vast economic network, with goods flowing to and from all parts of Mesoamerica. The city was a major producer of obsidian tools, with workshops processing material from mines the city controlled. Specialized craft production included distinctive ceramics (especially cylindrical tripod vessels), lapidary work, and feather crafts. Agriculture in the surrounding valley was intensified using irrigation systems, terracing, and raised fields (chinampas). Markets distributed goods throughout the urban center, with evidence suggesting standardized measurements and possibly a taxation system. Trade routes reached the Maya region, Oaxaca, the Gulf Coast, and possibly as far as the southwestern United States.
Developed sophisticated urban planning with precise astronomical alignments.
Mastered obsidian production techniques for tools, weapons, and ornaments.
Created advanced architectural systems including talud-tablero building styles.
Engineered drainage systems beneath the city to manage water flow.
Produced specialized tools for craft production and construction.
Evidence for Teotihuacan's military activities comes primarily from artistic representations and the city's presence at distant sites. Warriors appear in murals and figurines, often bearing distinctive rectangular shields and atlatls (spear-throwers). The extent of military conquest versus diplomatic influence remains debated, though archaeological evidence indicates Teotihuacan maintained a military presence in various regions to secure resources and trade routes. Later Mesoamerican cultures revered Teotihuacan as a place of warrior origin, suggesting its military reputation persisted long after the city's decline.
Constructed massive pyramids, including the Pyramid of the Sun (the third largest pyramid in the world).
Planned the city on a grid aligned to astronomical phenomena.
Created vibrant fresco murals depicting deities, rituals, and cosmic themes.
Developed the distinctive talud-tablero architectural style that influenced all later Mesoamerican building.
Produced fine ceramics, stone carvings, and masks with distinctive artistic conventions.
Teotihuacan declined dramatically around 550-650 CE, with evidence of systematic burning along the Avenue of the Dead suggesting an internal uprising or external attack. By 750 CE, the city had lost most of its population and political influence. Contributing factors may have included environmental degradation, drought, changing trade patterns, and social unrest. Despite its fall, Teotihuacan's legacy permeated Mesoamerican civilization. Later cultures including the Toltec, Maya, and Aztec revered the city as a sacred place of creation. Its architectural style, city planning concepts, artistic motifs, and religious imagery influenced Central American cultures for nearly a millennium after its collapse.
MOCHE CIVILISATION
c. 100 CE – 700 CE
Peru
An advanced pre-Incan civilization known for remarkable ceramic art, monumental adobe pyramids, and sophisticated metallurgy.
The Moche Civilization flourished along the northern coast of Peru from approximately 100 CE to 700 CE. Their territory extended across several river valleys from the Lambayeque Valley in the north to the Nepeña Valley in the south, encompassing arid coastal plains between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains. The civilization appears to have been organized around major centers in different valleys, with prominent sites including Sipán, Pampa Grande, and the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna (Temples of the Sun and Moon) near modern Trujillo.
Created extraordinarily detailed ceramic portrait vessels capturing individual likenesses.
Developed sophisticated metallurgy including gilding, soldering, and metal alloying.
Built massive adobe pyramids, including Huaca del Sol with an estimated 130 million bricks.
Engineered complex irrigation systems transforming desert into productive farmland.
Produced intricate textiles incorporating complex iconography and techniquest.
Moche society was highly stratified, with elaborate elite burials demonstrating significant wealth disparities. The famous Lord of Sipán tomb revealed a ruler buried with extraordinary gold and silver ornaments, accompanied by sacrificed attendants and guards. Beneath the elite were artisans, warriors, and agricultural workers. Ceramic art depicts diverse aspects of daily life including fishing, farming, weaving, and house construction. Ritual activities featured prominently, including elaborate ceremonies, music played on diverse instruments, and combat that may have been both ceremonial and military. Sexual practices were depicted frankly in ceramic art, suggesting different attitudes toward sexuality than in many ancient cultures.
Moche religion centered around complex rituals and a pantheon of powerful deities, often combining human and animal characteristics. The Decapitator God (Ai Apaec), depicted with fangs and snakes for hair, featured prominently in iconography. Human sacrifice played an important role in religious practice, as shown in both archaeological findings and artistic depictions of the "Sacrifice Ceremony" where prisoners' throats were cut and their blood consumed by priests. Religious specialists wore elaborate costumes and headdresses during ceremonies that likely included the use of psychoactive substances. Mountain worship appears significant, with pilgrimage routes to sacred peaks. The afterlife was clearly important, as evidenced by elaborate burial practices for elites.
The Moche political structure remains somewhat debated, with evidence suggesting a series of independent polities in different valleys rather than a unified state. Leadership appears to have been theocratic, with rulers functioning as both political and religious authorities. The discovery of elite tombs like that of the Lord of Sipán revealed individuals wearing regalia matching figures depicted performing rituals in Moche art, suggesting that political leaders personally conducted important ceremonies. These rulers likely controlled access to irrigation water, managed trade relations, led military expeditions, and presided over public rituals. Administrative sites have been identified near major monuments, indicating bureaucratic management of resources.
The Moche economy was based on intensive irrigated agriculture in river valleys, complemented by fishing and long-distance trade. Engineering projects channeled water from rivers to transform desert into productive farmland growing maize, beans, squash, peanuts, and cotton. Marine resources were systematically harvested using reed boats similar to modern caballitos de totora still used by Peruvian fishermen. Specialized craft production occurred in designated workshops for ceramics, metalwork, and textiles. Trade networks connected coastal regions with the highlands, bringing copper, cinnabar, and obsidian to Moche centers. Evidence for markets is limited, suggesting much production and distribution was managed through the elite.
Engineered sophisticated irrigation canals extending up to 70 miles from river sources.
Mastered metallurgical techniques including gilding, soldering, and casting.
Developed adobe brick manufacturing on an industrial scale for monumental construction.
Created advanced ceramic production methods including mold technology for mass production.
Designed seaworthy reed vessels for fishing and coastal transportation.
Warfare appears frequently in Moche art, with soldiers portrayed with distinctive equipment including round shields, clubs, spear-throwers, and elaborate regalia. Combat scenes show capture of prisoners, who were frequently sacrificed in religious ceremonies. Whether conflicts were primarily ritual combat or territorial warfare remains debated. Some scholars suggest a system where elite warriors engaged in ceremonial battles with the losers sacrificed, while others argue for more conventional territorial warfare between valleys or against highland peoples. The discovery of warrior burials with battle injuries confirms that combat was real, not merely symbolic, though it likely served both religious and political purposes.
Created extraordinarily realistic ceramic portrait vessels capturing individual faces.
Built massive adobe pyramids including the 1,600-foot-long Huaca del Sol.
Produced fine gold and silver ornaments with intricate designs.
Painted colorful murals depicting mythological scenes and religious practices.
Crafted textiles incorporating complex imagery and technical innovations.
The Moche civilization declined around 650-700 CE, likely due to a combination of factors including severe droughts evidenced in ice core samples, massive El Niño events causing catastrophic flooding, and possibly social unrest or external pressures. Some population centers shifted to new locations during the later Moche period, suggesting adaptation to environmental challenges before the culture's ultimate collapse. The Moche legacy influenced subsequent Andean civilizations including the Chimú and eventually the Inca. Their artistic traditions, particularly in ceramics and metallurgy, established techniques that would be utilized by later cultures. Modern Peruvians, especially in the north coast region, celebrate Moche heritage as an important part of their cultural identity.
SASSANIAN EMPIRE
c. 224 CE – 651 CE
Persia
The last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, known for its centralized government, Zoroastrian state religion, and artistic achievements that influenced both East and West.
The Sassanian Empire ruled Persia (modern Iran) and surrounding territories from 224 CE, when Ardashir I overthrew the Parthian Empire, until 651 CE when the last Sassanian king, Yazdegerd III, was defeated by Arab Muslim armies. At its height under Khosrow I (531-579 CE), the empire controlled territories from Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia and parts of the Indian subcontinent. Major capitals included Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad), Bishapur, and Firuzabad. The empire was Rome's (later Byzantium's) principal eastern rival for over four centuries.
Established a highly centralized state administration that influenced later Islamic governance.
Created a state-sponsored Zoroastrian religious hierarchy with standardized practices.
Developed sophisticated architectural innovations including the dome on squinches.
Founded the Academy of Gondishapur, a major intellectual center for medicine and philosophy.
Produced distinctive artistic styles that influenced both Byzantine and Islamic aesthetic traditions.
Sassanian society was rigidly hierarchical, divided into four main classes: priests, warriors, bureaucrats, and commoners (peasants and artisans). Social mobility was limited, with professions often hereditary. The court culture was highly formalized, with elaborate protocols and ceremonies. Literary culture flourished in Middle Persian (Pahlavi), producing religious texts, epic poetry, and scientific works. Musical traditions were sophisticated, with professional musicians highly valued at court. Court culture emphasized hunting, polo (invented in Iran), and chess (imported from India and modified). Royal banquets featured elaborate entertainments and ritualized drinking customs.
Zoroastrianism served as the Sassanian state religion, with a highly organized priesthood (magi) supporting royal authority. The empire saw efforts to standardize religious texts, resulting in codification of the Avesta (Zoroastrian scripture). Religious practices emphasized fire temples, ritual purity, and proper disposal of the dead in dakhmas (towers of silence). While Zoroastrianism was the official faith, religious minorities including Christians, Jews, Buddhists, and Manichaeans were generally tolerated, though their status varied under different rulers. Religious debates were common at court, with theological disputes sometimes gaining political dimensions, as seen in the Mazdakite movement's social reform agenda that challenged the established order.
The Sassanian Empire was governed as an absolute monarchy, with the king styled as "King of Kings" (Shahanshah) claiming divine right to rule. A complex bureaucracy managed taxation, military affairs, and judicial matters. The empire was divided into provinces ruled by governors (often royal family members) supervised by inspectors reporting directly to the king. Khosrow I (531-579 CE) implemented significant administrative reforms, creating a more efficient tax system and reorganizing the military. The government maintained extensive diplomatic relations with Rome/Byzantium, Central Asian kingdoms, India, and China. Court advisors included aristocrats, priests, and bureaucrats, though final authority rested with the monarch.
The Sassanian economy combined agriculture, manufacturing, and extensive international trade. Agricultural productivity increased through irrigation projects and water management systems. A strong currency based on silver drachms facilitated commerce across and beyond the empire. Luxury crafts including silk textiles, metalwork, and glassware were produced in state workshops and by private artisans. The empire controlled critical portions of the Silk Road, profiting from east-west trade between China and Rome/Byzantium. Port cities on the Persian Gulf connected sea routes to India and beyond. Royal monopolies on certain goods and customs duties on trade routes generated significant revenue for the state.
Pioneered architectural techniques including the squinch, enabling large dome construction.
Developed sophisticated irrigation systems including qanats (underground channels).
Established the Academy of Gondishapur, integrating Greek, Persian, Indian, and Syrian knowledge.
Advanced metalworking techniques for weapons, armor, and decorative objects.
Created innovative textile production methods, particularly for silk and carpet weaving.
The Sassanian military was one of the world's most sophisticated fighting forces, centered around heavily armored cavalry (clibanarii or cataphracts) and archery units. Military service was primarily the duty of the aristocratic class, who maintained private armies supported by peasant levies. Under Khosrow I, military organization became more professional with regular wages. Engineering corps constructed siege engines, bridges, and field fortifications. The empire fought numerous wars against Rome/Byzantium, with territory in Mesopotamia and the Caucasus frequently changing hands. Major victories included Emperor Valerian's capture in 260 CE and the conquest of Jerusalem in 614 CE, though the empire was severely weakened by the long Byzantine-Sassanid War (602-628 CE) just before the Islamic conquests.
Built magnificent palaces and fire temples featuring distinctive architecture.
Created rock reliefs celebrating royal power and divine sanction.
Crafted exquisite metalwork, particularly silver plates depicting royal hunts and ceremonies.
Produced fine textiles, especially silk brocades with distinctive medallion patterns.
Developed the distinctive four-arch (Chahar Taq) fire temple design.
The Sassanian Empire fell to Arab Muslim armies between 636-651 CE, weakened by the exhausting war with Byzantium (602-628 CE) and internal succession disputes. Despite its political collapse, Sassanian administrative practices, art, and court culture profoundly influenced the Islamic caliphates that succeeded it. Persian language and culture remained dominant in the region, with many Sassanian families transitioning into the new Islamic elite. Architectural techniques, artistic motifs, and governance models spread both east and west, influencing Byzantine, Islamic, and Central Asian traditions. Elements of Sassanian court ceremonial were adopted by both Byzantine and later Islamic courts. Their intellectual legacy, particularly in medicine, astronomy, and philosophy, was preserved and developed further in the Islamic Golden Age.
GHANA EMPIRE
c. 300 CE – 1100 CE
West Africa
One of Africa's earliest known empires, which controlled trans-Saharan gold trade and developed sophisticated political and social institutions.
The Ghana Empire (also known as Wagadou) existed from approximately 300 CE to 1100 CE in West Africa, in territories now part of modern Mauritania, Mali, and Senegal. Not to be confused with the modern nation of Ghana, which was named after the empire, ancient Ghana was centered in the Sahel region between the Sahara Desert and the savanna lands to the south. The empire reached its peak during the 9th and 10th centuries before declining due to Almoravid invasions, environmental challenges, and shifting trade patterns.
Established control over trans-Saharan gold trade, becoming known as the "Land of Gold."
Developed a sophisticated taxation system on trade goods crossing their territory.
Created a centralized kingdom with complex administration in a region of diverse ethnic groups.
Built impressive urban centers including the capital Koumbi Saleh.
Controlled crucial resources including gold mines and salt deposits or their trade routes.
Ghana's society was hierarchical, with the king (called the Ghana or Tunka) at the apex, followed by nobles, free people, and slaves. The Soninke people formed the ethnic core of the empire, though numerous other groups lived under Ghana's rule. Court life was elaborate, with royal ceremonies designed to impress both subjects and foreign visitors. The population practiced a combination of traditional beliefs and, increasingly over time, Islam, which arrived via North African traders. Family and clan relationships remained important social organizing principles. Archaeological evidence from sites like Koumbi Saleh reveals urban planning with distinct quarters for traders and the indigenous population.
The religion of ancient Ghana combined traditional African spiritual practices with gradual Islamic influence. The ruling classes maintained traditional beliefs, with the king serving as both political and religious leader, considered divine or semi-divine by his subjects. Sacred serpents, ancestral spirits, and natural forces were important in indigenous religious practice. From the 8th century onward, Muslim merchants established communities in trading centers, gradually spreading Islamic influence. By the empire's later period, some rulers adopted Islam while maintaining traditional ceremonial roles for political purposes. This religious complexity created a syncretic culture that balanced traditional customs with new religious ideas.
Ghana was governed by a divine kingship system in which the king (Ghana or Tunka) wielded both political and religious authority. The government combined centralized royal power with decentralized provincial administration. The king maintained a court of advisors and officials who helped administer the empire. Provincial governors, often members of the royal family or trusted nobles, oversaw outlying regions. The empire's success stemmed from its ability to control both gold-producing regions to the south and salt mines in the Sahara, taxing the valuable trans-Saharan trade. Arab accounts describe an elaborate court with impressive ceremonies, suggesting a sophisticated political system that used spectacle to reinforce royal authority.
Ghana's prosperity came primarily from controlling trans-Saharan trade, particularly the exchange of gold from southern forests for salt from Saharan mines. The empire didn't directly produce much gold but taxed it passing through their territory. A sophisticated taxation system imposed duties on goods entering and leaving the kingdom. The famous "silent trade" of gold for salt occurred in Ghana's territories: merchants would leave salt and goods, withdraw, and gold traders would leave gold dust in exchange, allowing trade between groups who didn't share a language or who wished to keep their sources secret. Besides gold and salt, trade goods included copper, ivory, slaves, kola nuts, leather goods, textiles, and livestock. Agricultural production formed the economic foundation for most citizens.
Developed sophisticated iron-working techniques for tools and weapons.
Created advanced agricultural systems adapted to the semi-arid Sahel environment.
Established urban planning with distinct quarters for different populations.
Built structures combining indigenous techniques with North African influences.
Engineered water management systems for agriculture and urban centers.
Ghana maintained a formidable military force that secured trade routes and expanded imperial control. According to contemporary accounts, the king could field an army of 200,000 men, though this number was likely exaggerated. The military included both infantry and cavalry units, with iron weapons giving technological advantage over many neighbors. Military organization appears to have been based on age-grade systems and clan affiliations common in West Africa. The empire controlled gold fields through political alliance and military pressure rather than direct occupation. Defensive strategies protected trade routes from desert nomads and rival states, though the military ultimately proved unable to resist Almoravid incursions in the 11th century.
Built stone structures in urban centers, particularly in Koumbi Saleh.
Created distinct architectural styles blending local techniques with North African influences.
Developed decorative metalwork in gold, copper, and bronze.
Produced distinctive pottery with geometric designs.
Crafted leather goods, textiles, and wood carvings reflecting local cultural motifs.
Ghana began declining in the 11th century due to multiple factors: Almoravid invasions disrupted trade and political stability; environmental degradation from overgrazing and climate change affected agricultural productivity; shifting trade routes bypassed Ghana's territory; and internal succession disputes weakened central authority. By 1100 CE, the empire had fragmented. Despite its fall, Ghana established patterns for subsequent West African empires, particularly Mali and Songhai, which adopted similar administrative structures and trade policies. The Ghana Empire demonstrated that complex, centralized states could flourish in West Africa, challenging Eurocentric views of African political development. Its sophisticated management of diverse populations and long-distance trade networks left a legacy that influenced West African political organization for centuries.
TIWANAKU EMPIRE
c. 300 CE – 1000 CE
Bolivia, Peru
A high-altitude Andean civilization with advanced agricultural techniques, monumental stone architecture, and wide-ranging cultural influence throughout South America.
The Tiwanaku Empire flourished in the Andean highlands from approximately 300 CE to 1000 CE, centered around Lake Titicaca at the border of modern Bolivia and Peru. Beginning as a small settlement around 200 BCE, Tiwanaku grew into a major urban center by 400 CE and expanded its influence across the southern Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Located at 3,850 meters (12,600 feet) above sea level, it is one of the highest urban settlements of the ancient world. The empire reached its peak between 500-900 CE before environmental changes and internal factors led to its decline.
Developed raised field agriculture (suka kollus) for farming in the harsh high-altitude environment.
Created monumental stone architecture with precise cutting and fitting techniques.
Established far-reaching trade and cultural networks across diverse ecological zones.
Built an advanced water management system with canals, reservoirs, and aqueducts.
Created sophisticated textiles, metalwork, and distinctive iconography that influenced subsequent Andean cultures.
Tiwanaku society was hierarchical, with elite groups controlling access to ritual spaces and resources. The city itself was divided into distinct neighborhoods, possibly based on ethnicity, occupation, or social status. Archaeological evidence suggests a society organized around kinship groups (ayllus), a pattern that persisted in Andean cultures through the Inca period and beyond. The Tiwanaku diet centered around potatoes, quinoa, and other Andean crops, supplemented by llama and alpaca meat and fish from Lake Titicaca. Residents consumed chicha (corn beer) during ritual and social gatherings. Evidence of cranial modification among elites suggests physical appearance marked social distinction.
Tiwanaku religion centered around complex cosmic beliefs tied to astronomical observations. The primary deity, depicted on the famous Gateway of the Sun, was the Staff God (likely a precursor to the Inca god Viracocha), shown with rays emanating from his head and holding staffs. Other important religious figures included the Sacrificer (associated with human sacrifice) and a variety of zoomorphic beings including pumas, condors, and serpents. Ceremonial spaces like the Akapana pyramid and Semi-subterranean Temple hosted elaborate rituals involving processions, offerings, and possibly sacrifice. The religious system legitimized elite authority while integrating diverse ethnic groups under a shared cosmological framework.
While the exact nature of Tiwanaku's political organization remains debated, archaeological evidence suggests a complex state governed by elites who managed tribute, labor, and resources. The central authority coordinated massive agricultural systems, monumental construction projects, and long-distance trade, indicating sophisticated administrative capabilities. Rather than ruling solely through military conquest, Tiwanaku appears to have expanded through a combination of direct control, religious influence, and trade relationships. Colonies in different ecological zones maximized access to diverse resources. Power was likely legitimized through religious ideology, with rulers or ruling councils controlling access to ceremonial spaces and overseeing rituals tied to agricultural cycles.
Tiwanaku's economy was based on remarkable agricultural innovations and control of resources across multiple ecological zones. The empire developed raised field agriculture (suka kollus) that created microclimates protecting crops from frost in the harsh altiplano environment. This system significantly increased food production, supporting urban growth and expansion. Trade networks connected the highlands with the Pacific coast and Amazonian lowlands, bringing tropical goods, fish, and minerals to the capital. Tiwanaku controlled key resources including copper, gold, silver, and obsidian. Llama caravans transported goods along established routes. The economic system likely combined state direction, community organization through ayllus (kinship groups), and long-distance exchange relationships.
Created raised field agricultural systems that provided frost protection and enhanced fertility.
Developed sophisticated stone-cutting techniques for constructing monumental architecture.
Engineered water management systems including canals and reservoirs.
Mastered metallurgy in copper, gold, silver, and their alloys.
Produced distinctive ceramic technologies adapted to local materials and needs.
Evidence for Tiwanaku military activities is limited compared to other ancient civilizations, suggesting expansion occurred through a combination of religious prestige, economic relationships, and targeted force rather than large-scale conquest. Some trophy heads and depictions of warriors in art indicate that warfare did occur, but it appears less central to state identity than in cultures like the later Inca Empire. Control over food production and trade routes may have provided sufficient leverage to maintain imperial influence without constant military campaigns. Colonial settlements in distant territories likely had some defensive capability, but massive fortifications are notably absent from major Tiwanaku sites.
Built monumental structures including the Akapana pyramid and Kalasasaya temple complex.
Carved massive stone gateways, including the famous Gateway of the Sun with its intricate relief.
Created the distinctive Bennett Monolith and Ponce Monolith, massive carved stone figures.
Produced fine ceramics, particularly keros (drinking vessels) with distinctive iconography.
Crafted intricate textiles and metalwork featuring religious and cosmological imagery.
Tiwanaku began declining around 1000 CE, likely due to a prolonged drought that undermined its agricultural system. Climate change affected water levels in Lake Titicaca and reduced agricultural productivity. As the capital weakened, outlying territories gained independence or fell under new influences. By 1100 CE, the city was largely abandoned. Despite its fall, Tiwanaku left a profound legacy on Andean civilization. Its icon ography and religious concepts influenced the Inca Empire, which arose centuries later. Agricultural techniques including raised field systems and terracing continued to be used in the region. Contemporary Aymara and Quechua peoples consider Tiwanaku part of their ancestral heritage, and the site remains a powerful symbol of indigenous South American achievement. Modern Bolivia has embraced Tiwanaku as a national symbol, with presidential inaugurations sometimes held at the ancient site.
GUPTA EMPIRE
c. 319 CE – 550 CE
India
A golden age of Indian civilization with remarkable achievements in science, mathematics, art, literature, and philosophy.
The Gupta Empire flourished in northern and central India from approximately 319 CE to 550 CE. Founded by Chandragupta I (not to be confused with the earlier Mauryan emperor of the same name), the empire reached its zenith under Samudragupta (335-375 CE) and Chandragupta II (375-415 CE). At its height, the empire controlled territories from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea, encompassing most of the northern Indian subcontinent and parts of modern Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The capital was at Pataliputra (modern Patna), with regional centers at Ujjain, Varanasi, and other major cities.
Developed sophisticated mathematics including the concept of zero and decimal system.
Advanced astronomy, accurately calculating solar and lunar eclipses and planetary positions.
Created masterpieces of literature, including Kalidasa's plays and poetry.
Established Nalanda University, one of the world's first residential universities.
Refined artistic techniques in sculpture, architecture, painting, and metallurgy.
Gupta society was structured according to the varna (caste) system, though with some flexibility compared to later periods. The imperial court was a center of cultural refinement, attracting scholars, artists, and poets from across the subcontinent. Sanskrit literature flourished, with Kalidasa's works representing the pinnacle of classical Sanskrit poetry and drama. Urban life thrived in major cities, with merchants and guilds playing important economic roles. Women of upper castes had restricted public roles, though literary works suggest they received education and participated in artistic pursuits. Buddhist and Hindu religious practices coexisted, with pilgrimage sites and temples receiving royal patronage. The period is often called India's "Golden Age" for its cultural and intellectual achievements.
The Gupta era witnessed a resurgence of Hinduism while maintaining religious pluralism. Gupta rulers personally followed Hindu practices, particularly Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu), but supported all religious traditions. Buddhism continued to flourish, with important monasteries and universities receiving royal patronage. Jainism maintained a significant presence, particularly in western India. Hindu temples became more elaborate during this period, with early examples of the architectural styles that would later characterize medieval Indian temples. Religious texts composed or compiled during this era include portions of the Puranas (ancient Hindu texts) and important Buddhist commentaries. The concept of bhakti (devotional worship) gained prominence, influencing religious practice across traditions.
The Gupta Empire operated as a centralized monarchy with significant autonomy granted to regional governors and local authorities. The king was supported by a council of ministers and a sophisticated bureaucracy. Provincial governors, often royal relatives, administered territories while acknowledging the emperor's authority. Village councils managed local affairs, collecting taxes and maintaining order. The legal system combined royal edicts with traditional customs specific to different communities. Diplomatic relations extended to Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and China. The Gupta administrative model balanced central control with practical recognition of India's cultural and regional diversity, creating a stable framework that fostered cultural and economic prosperity.
The Gupta economy rested on productive agriculture, sophisticated crafts, and extensive trade networks. Agriculture benefited from improved irrigation techniques, with rice cultivation dominant in eastern regions and wheat in the west. Guild organizations (shreni) regulated craft production and trade activities, maintaining quality standards and representing member interests. Maritime commerce connected Indian ports with Arabia, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Mediterranean, exchanging spices, textiles, ivory, and luxury goods. The Gupta period saw extensive use of coined money, with gold coins (dinara) particularly known for their purity and craftsmanship. Land grants to religious institutions and Brahmins (priests) created new agricultural settlements while extending imperial influence into peripheral regions.
Advanced mathematical concepts including zero, decimal notation, and calculation of pi.
Developed the medical system of Ayurveda, documenting surgical techniques and treatments.
Created the game of chess (chaturanga) as a simulation of battlefield strategy.
Refined metallurgical processes, exemplified by the rust-resistant Iron Pillar of Delhi.
Established astronomical observations allowing accurate prediction of eclipses and planetary movements.
The Gupta military combined traditional Indian warfare elements with innovations adapted from Central Asian contacts. The army included infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and chariot units, though the latter declined in importance over time. Samudragupta's conquests, recorded in the Allahabad Pillar inscription, expanded the empire across northern India through a series of campaigns. The empire maintained a defensive posture against the Huna (White Hun) invasions from Central Asia during its later period, initially successful under Skandagupta but gradually losing ground. Naval forces protected maritime trade routes in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Military success depended on maintaining alliances with border kingdoms that served as buffer states against external threats.
Developed the Gupta style of temple architecture, including early examples at Deogarh and Sanchi.
Created iconic Buddhist cave paintings at Ajanta depicting Jataka tales and Buddha's life.
Crafted refined stone sculptures showing graceful human forms and subtle expressions.
Produced exquisite metalwork, including gold coins and the technically advanced Iron Pillar of Delhi.
Established aesthetic principles for religious and secular art that influenced South and Southeast Asian traditions.
The Gupta Empire began declining in the late 5th century, weakened by Huna (White Hun) invasions, internal succession disputes, and the rise of regional powers. By 550 CE, effective central control had dissolved, though Gupta princes continued ruling smaller territories. Despite its political end, the empire's cultural and intellectual achievements had lasting impact. Mathematical innovations including zero and the decimal system spread globally. Sanskrit literature established classical forms that influenced Indian literary traditions for centuries. Buddhist scholarship from Gupta-era universities spread to East and Southeast Asia. The concept of Indian cultural unity that emerged during this period persisted through subsequent political fragmentation. Art and architectural styles developed under the Guptas evolved into the regional traditions of medieval India, creating a foundation for the subcontinent's diverse yet interconnected cultural expressions.
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
c. 330 CE – 1453 CE
Eastern Mediterranean
The eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, which preserved classical knowledge, developed distinctive art and architecture, and served as a bulwark between Europe and Asia for over a millennium.
The Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, existed from 330 CE, when Constantine the Great established Constantinople (modern Istanbul) as his capital, until 1453 CE, when the Ottoman Turks conquered the city. At its height under Justinian I (527-565 CE), the empire controlled territories including Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and parts of North Africa and Italy. After the 7th century, Byzantine territory gradually contracted due to Arab, Slavic, and Turkish conquests, though periodic revivals occurred, notably under the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056 CE) and the Komnenian restoration (1081-1185 CE).
Preserved and transmitted classical Greek and Roman knowledge throughout the Middle Ages.
Developed distinctive architectural styles culminating in the Hagia Sophia's revolutionary dome.
Created a sophisticated legal system through the Justinian Code that influenced modern jurisprudence.
Maintained a stable gold currency (the solidus/bezant) that served as international standard for centuries.
Established complex diplomatic networks balancing military force with strategic alliances and negotiations.
Byzantine society was highly stratified yet offered some mobility through imperial service and education. Constantinople, with an estimated population of 500,000 at its height, was medieval Europe's largest and most sophisticated city, featuring hospitals, universities, public baths, and elaborate entertainment venues including the Hippodrome. Greek replaced Latin as the official language by the 7th century, though the empire maintained Roman administrative traditions and identity as "Romans" (Romaioi). Imperial court life featured elaborate ceremonies designed to elevate the emperor as God's viceroy on earth. Education was valued, with secular learning preserved alongside religious instruction. Women, while legally restricted, could own property and businesses, and occasionally exercised significant political influence, particularly as empresses and regents.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity formed the spiritual and cultural foundation of Byzantine civilization. The emperor served as both political leader and protector of the faith, though tensions between imperial authority and church independence persisted. Religious controversies over theological matters, particularly Christological debates about the nature of Christ, frequently gained political dimensions. The Great Schism of 1054 CE formalized the split between Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christianity. Byzantine religious expression emphasized mystery and transcendence, reflected in elaborate liturgical ceremonies, church architecture designed to create a sense of heaven on earth, and the iconic artistic tradition that still characterizes Orthodox worship. Monasticism played a crucial role in both spiritual life and education, with monasteries preserving ancient texts and serving as centers of learning.
The Byzantine Empire continued the Roman tradition of centralized imperial rule while developing distinctive institutions. The emperor (basileus) held absolute authority, considered God's representative on earth, with succession theoretically based on merit rather than heredity, though dynasties frequently formed. A sophisticated bureaucracy administered the empire, with specialized departments managing finance, foreign affairs, and military matters. The civil service offered a path to advancement based partially on merit, with eunuch officials often holding high positions immune to dynastic ambitions. The empire operated according to Roman law codified under Justinian I, whose Corpus Juris Civilis became the foundation of many modern legal systems. Provincial organization evolved over time, from the late Roman prefecture system to the theme system organizing provinces around military units.
The Byzantine economy rested on sophisticated agriculture, urban manufacturing, and extensive trade networks. The gold solidus remained the Mediterranean's most stable currency for seven centuries, facilitating international commerce. State controls regulated many economic activities, with government monopolies on strategic industries like silk production. Constantinople served as the nexus of trade routes connecting Europe with Asia and Africa, with customs duties providing substantial imperial revenue. Agricultural innovations included the heavy plow and efficient water mills. Urban economies featured guild organizations maintaining quality standards for craft production. Major exports included luxury textiles (particularly silk), ivory carvings, jewelry, spices (re-exported from Asia), and wines. Economic decline accelerated after the Fourth Crusade's devastation of Constantinople in 1204, though commercial activity continued until the empire's fall.
Developed "Greek fire," a combustible liquid weapon that could burn on water.
Created architectural innovations allowing the construction of massive domes on square bases.
Maintained sophisticated urban infrastructure including aqueducts, cisterns, and sewage systems.
Advanced military engineering with defensive fortifications that withstood numerous sieges.
Preserved ancient scientific and medical knowledge while adding Byzantine contributions.
The Byzantine military evolved from the late Roman model into a distinctive defensive system that sustained the empire for centuries despite constant threats. The early Byzantine army relied on heavily armored cavalry (cataphracts) supported by infantry and naval forces controlling the Mediterranean. The theme system (7th-12th centuries) organized provinces as military districts where soldier-farmers received land in exchange for hereditary military service. The empire's survival depended on sophisticated fortifications, particularly Constantinople's massive walls, and naval power centered on the dromons (war galleys) equipped with Greek fire projectors. Byzantine strategy emphasized diplomatic maneuvering to avoid conflict when possible, limited engagements rather than decisive battles when necessary, and comprehensive intelligence gathering about potential threats. The elite Varangian Guard, initially composed of Norse and later Anglo-Saxon warriors, served as the emperor's personal bodyguard.
Created the architectural masterpiece Hagia Sophia with its revolutionary dome construction.
Developed the iconic tradition emphasizing spiritual expression through stylized religious imagery.
Produced exquisite mosaics featuring gold backgrounds and spiritual subjects.
Crafted delicate ivory carvings, metalwork, and illuminated manuscripts.
Established architectural patterns for Orthodox churches that spread throughout Eastern Europe and Russia.
The Byzantine Empire's gradual decline accelerated after the disastrous Fourth Crusade (1204), when Western crusaders sacked Constantinople and temporarily fractured the empire. Though partially reconstituted after 1261, Byzantium never fully recovered its territory or economic strength. Ottoman Turkish expansion gradually reduced Byzantine territory until Constantinople finally fell in 1453 after a 53-day siege, ending the empire's 1,123-year history. The Byzantine legacy lived on through Orthodox Christianity in Russia, Greece, and the Balkans, where the concept of Byzantium as a model Christian empire remained powerful. The empire's intellectual contributions included preserving classical Greek learning that would help fuel the Renaissance. Byzantine art influenced both Western and Islamic traditions. The legal codes provided foundations for modern civil law systems. Perhaps most significantly, by serving as a bulwark against Arab and Turkish expansion for centuries, the Byzantine Empire gave Western Europe time to develop its own distinctive civilization.
476 CE
TANG DYNASTY
c. 618 CE – 907 CE
China
A golden age of Chinese civilization known for its cosmopolitan culture, artistic achievements, and far-reaching influence across East Asia.
The Tang Dynasty ruled China from 618 CE to 907 CE, with its capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an), then the world's largest city with nearly 2 million inhabitants. At its height under Emperor Xuanzong (712-756 CE), the empire controlled territories stretching from the Korean Peninsula to Central Asia, including parts of modern Vietnam, Tibet, and Mongolia. The dynasty is divided into early Tang (618-690 CE), the Wu Zetian interregnum (China's only female emperor, 690-705 CE), the High Tang (705-755 CE), and the period after the An Lushan Rebellion (755-907 CE), which marked the beginning of gradual decline.
Created the world's first meritocratic civil service examination system.
Developed woodblock printing, making books more widely available.
Established the "Three Teachings" synthesis of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
Produced sophisticated poetry and literature that set standards for later generations.
Created distinctive artistic traditions in ceramics, painting, and architecture.
Tang society was remarkably cosmopolitan and relatively open by pre-modern standards. The legal code moderated the harshest punishments of previous dynasties and established more equitable laws. Women enjoyed greater freedom than in later periods, participating in politics, business, and culture, exemplified by the poet Li Qingzhao and Emperor Wu Zetian. The capital Chang'an attracted merchants, monks, and scholars from across Asia, creating a multicultural environment. Tang fashions, music, and customs incorporated Central Asian influences. Urban culture thrived with public entertainments including acrobatics, music, and dance performances. The era produced China's most celebrated poets, including Li Bai, Du Fu, and Wang Wei, whose works remain influential in Chinese culture.
The Tang Dynasty saw the flourishing of multiple religious traditions. Buddhism reached its zenith in China, with imperial patronage of monasteries and translation projects for Buddhist texts. Major schools including Chan (Zen) and Pure Land developed their distinctive Chinese forms during this period. Indigenous Taoism evolved with new texts and organized institutions paralleling Buddhist monasticism. Confucianism began its revival that would culminate in the Song Dynasty's Neo-Confucianism. Foreign religions including Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam established communities in major cities. Religious expression in art reached new heights, exemplified by the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang and the monumental Leshan Giant Buddha. The later Tang period saw a backlash against Buddhism's growing wealth and power, resulting in the persecution of 845 CE.
The Tang government combined strong central authority with sophisticated administrative systems. The emperor ruled with the assistance of three main departments: the Secretariat (policy formulation), the Chancellery (policy review), and the Department of State Affairs (policy implementation). The innovative civil service examination system recruited officials based on merit rather than family connections, though aristocratic families maintained significant influence. The empire was divided into prefectures and counties administered by appointed officials subject to regular evaluation. Tang legal codes balancing punishment and rehabilitation influenced legal traditions throughout East Asia. Emperor Taizong (626-649 CE) established a model of rulership emphasizing personal virtue and receptiveness to criticism that became the standard for later dynasties. The An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 CE) marked a turning point, after which military governors gained increasing autonomy from central control.
The Tang economy was characterized by agricultural innovations, expanding commerce, and international trade connections. The equal-field system assigned land based on household size, though large estates gradually reemerged. Agricultural production increased through irrigation projects, new farming tools, and the introduction of early-ripening Champa rice from Vietnam. The government monopolized salt and iron production, providing substantial revenue. Commerce thrived with standardized coinage, the world's first government-issued paper money, and sophisticated credit instruments. The Grand Canal facilitated north-south domestic trade. International commerce flourished along both maritime and overland Silk Roads, with Chinese ships reaching Persia and Arab traders establishing communities in Chinese ports. Foreign luxury goods including Persian glassware, Indian cotton, and Central Asian horses entered China, while silk, porcelain, and tea became major exports.
Pioneered woodblock printing, allowing wider dissemination of knowledge.
Developed advanced ceramic technologies including the distinctive three-color (sancai) glazes.
Created mechanical engineering innovations including the water-powered armillary sphere.
Advanced gunpowder technology, originally discovered during Taoist alchemical experiments.
Improved shipbuilding techniques enabling long-distance maritime trade.
The Tang military was initially organized under the fubing system, where soldier-farmers served in rotation and provided their own equipment. This system supported early Tang expansion into Central Asia, Korea, and Vietnam. Heavy cavalry adopted from steppe nomads and armored infantry formed the core fighting forces, supplemented by specialized units including crossbowmen. Military colonies (tuntian) established in frontier regions combined defense with agricultural production. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the fubing system collapsed, replaced by professional armies under regional military governors who frequently operated independently from central control. The dynasty's decline accelerated when these regional forces failed to prevent incursions by Tibetan, Uyghur, and other neighboring peoples. Naval forces patrolled rivers and coastal regions but received less emphasis than land armies.
Created distinctive three-color (sancai) glazed pottery figures and vessels.
Developed landscape painting as a major art form expressing philosophical concepts.
Built monumental Buddhist cave temple complexes including Mogao and Longmen.
Designed grand imperial and Buddhist architecture exemplified by the Big Wild Goose Pagoda.
Produced exquisite metalwork, lacquerware, and textiles reflecting cosmopolitan influences.
The Tang Dynasty's decline began with the An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 CE), which devastated the empire's population and economy. Though the rebellion was eventually suppressed, central authority never fully recovered, with military governors (jiedushi) gaining increasing autonomy. Environmental factors including deforestation and soil erosion reduced agricultural productivity, while government revenue declined. Final collapse came in 907 CE, leading to the politically fragmented Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Despite its fall, the Tang left an enduring legacy as China's cultural golden age. Tang governance models influenced all subsequent Chinese dynasties and spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Literary and artistic achievements established standards emulated for centuries. The civil service examination system persisted until 1905. Tang Chang'an's urban design influenced city planning throughout East Asia. The dynasty's cosmopolitan culture and diplomatic reach established China's central position in the Asian world order.
(570-632 CE/ 53 BH-11 AH)
Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was from the noble tribe of Quraysh a highly influential Arabian lineage.
Prophet Muhammad's lineage is connected to Prophet Ibrahim
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through his son Prophet Ishmael
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Muhammad ﷺ was born in Makkah on the 9th of the month of Rabi Al-Awwal. Muhammad’s ﷺ father, Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib, passed away before the birth of his son leaving very little wealth.
It was the general custom of the Arabs living in towns to send their children away to bedouin wet-nurses in order to grow up in a healthy surrounding and acquire the purer speech and manners of the bedouins.
Muhammad ﷺ was nursed by Haleemah bint Abi Dhuaib. Haleemah and her whole family were favoured with good fortune whilst Muhammad ﷺwas under their care. Their previously barren land sprouted with grass, and their livestock were full of milk.
When Muhammad ﷺ was six, his mother tragically fell ill and died whilst on a journey back from Yathrib (Medina). Muhammad’s ﷺ grandfather, Abdul Muttalib took guardianship over him. He was dearly loved by his grandfather, who always kept him by his side. Two years later Muhammad’s ﷺ Grandfather became ill and passed away. Muhammad ﷺ sas then taken care of by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib.
Abu Talib took care of Muhammad ﷺ in the best way, putting him with his family and children. During the remaining 40 years, Abu Talib extended Muhammad ﷺ all possible protection and support.
When Muhammad ﷺ was twelve years old, he accompanied his uncle on a trade journey to Syria. On the journey, they met a monk called Bahira, who recognised the signs of prophethood on Muhammad ﷺ.
By the time Muhammad ﷺ was 25 years old, he had a reputation for honesty. He was hired by Kadijah bint Kawailid, a wealthy businesswomen, to take her goods to trade in Syria. Khadija was extremely impressed with how he conducted business, the reports of his honesty and good manners, and expressed her wish to marry him.
Muhammad ﷺ and Kadijah had a happy marriage. Khadija bore all of his children, except Ibrahim: Al-Qasim, Zainab, Ruqaiyah, Umm Kultum, Fatimah and Abdullah. All of his sons died in childhood and all of his daughters died in his lifetime, except Fatimah who passed away 6 months after his death.
When Muhammad ﷺ was nearly 40 years old, he began to spend increasing amounts of time in solitude in the hills and ravines in the neighbourhood of Makkah, devoting himself to worship and meditation.
When Muhammad ﷺ was 40 years old, he began to experience true visions for 6 months. During the month of Ramadan, that year, angel Jibreel appeared before Muhammad in human form, and the first verses of the Quran were revealed. This experience left Prophet Muhammad ﷺ surprised and confused. Terrified, he rushed back to his wife, Khadijah, who took him to her Christian cousin, Waraqa. Waraqah told him that the revelation he had was from the same source as the previous prophets, Prophets Musa and Isa.
The revelation of the Quran continued throughout the life of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.
The Prophet ﷺ started the call to Islam with his immediate family, then moved on to people who were closely associated with him, and whoever he thought would respond to the call.
The Prophet's ﷺ wife, Khadijah, was the first person to enter Islam, followed by his freed slave, Zaid bin Harithah, his cousin, Ali bin Abi Talib, and his close friend, Abu Bakr.
For three years the Prophet ﷺ called to Islam in private. However, revelation demanded that the Prophet ﷺ call his tribe and near kindred to Islam, which he proceeded to do from his fourth year of Prophethood to almost the tenth year.
During this time, the Quraish openly opposed and attempted to discredit the Prophet ﷺ and the Call by resorting to calling the Prophet ﷺ a soothsayer, poet, possessed, insane, and a liar.
This opposition by the Quraish eventually escalated to the nobles of the Quraish deciding to use torturous means to try to abate the rise of Islam. Despite the Prophet ﷺ having the support of his extremely powerful uncle, Abu Talib, the Prophet ﷺ was still targeted.
Those with no strong clans to support them, endured severe forms of torture like starvation, being beaten, left out in the heat of the scorching sun, and being tied up and dragged through the streets.
In the fifth year of Prophethood, the Prophet ﷺ allowed a group of Muslims to seek asylum in Abyssinia.
Initially 16 Muslim men and women, and later 83 men and women, left Makkah and sought shelter in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) with the Christian ruler King Negus.
The Quraish sent two of their people after the Muslims to persuade King Negus to send the Muslims back to Makkah, however King Negus, refused until he heard what the Muslims had to say. After hearing the Muslims recite some Quran and explain the teachings of the Prophet, King Negus declared that it seemed to him that what the Muslims told him and the message of Jesus were from the same source. He declared that they were free to live and worship in his land as they wished.
Back in Makkah, the Quraish made a pact with each other against the tribes of Banu Hasim and Banu Al-Muttalib. This pact involved a social and economic boycott so that they would not have any business dealings, marriages, social relations, visits and even verbal contact with the Prophet ﷺ and his supporters until they handed the Prophet ﷺ over to them to be killed.
Banu Hasim and Banu Al-Muttalib retreated to a valley on the eastern outskirts of Makkah and were confined within a narrow pass from the seventh year of Prophethood to the tenth year.
The people in Makkah would buy any food imported into Makkah to keep it away from the Muslims, so little food was available to them except what a few compassionate Makkan’s were able to smuggle to them.
The three year siege caused much suffering and hardship, yet despite this, the Prophet ﷺ, continued to go to the Kabah, pray publicly, and preach to outsiders who visited Makkah.
In the tenth year of Prophethood, the Mother of the believers, the Prophet’s ﷺ wife and greatest help, passed away. During this year, Abu Talib, the Prophet’s ﷺ loving uncle and guardian, fell ill and passed away.
The death of Abu Talib made the Prophet ﷺ vulnerable and the Makkans increased their campaign of torture and oppression.
Seeking support in neighbouring areas, the Prophet ﷺ went to Ta’if to spread his message and seek help. There, the people of Ta’if jeered and drove him out of the city, pelting him with stones.
At this low period, the Prophet ﷺ had an extraordinary experience. One night, as the Prophet ﷺ slept next to the Kabah, Angel Jibreel woke him and was carried in body by a winged horse named Al-Buraq, to Al-Aqsa mosque, in Jerusalem. This journey is referred to as Al-Isra, the Night Journey. There the Prophet ﷺ met other Prophets and led them in prayer.
After that, Jibreel took the Prophet ﷺ to the heavens on the same horse. This journey is referred to as Al-Miraj, the Ascension. The Prophet ﷺ saw angels and met with some of the Prophets on his way to beyond the seventh heaven. Beyond the seventh heaven, the Prophet ﷺ until the Prophet ﷺ was presented to Allah. It was during this experience that Allah’s commandment on the prayer was revealed to the Prophet ﷺ.
This Night Journey and Ascension, was a turning point for the Prophet. After years of persecution, and the loss of both Khadija and Abu Talib, this experience gave the Prophet ﷺ great comfort and the strength to go on.
During the pilgrimage seasons the Prophet ﷺ would meet with the pilgrims and explain the message of Islam.it was during one of these meetings, 6 from the Khazraj tribe from Yathrib (Madina) accepted Islam and made the promise to spread this message on their return home.
The following year, 11 people from Yathrib, which included 5 of those from the previous year, made a pledge in Aqabah to the Prophet ﷺ known as the First Pledge of Aqabah. The Prophet ﷺ sent Musab bin Umair Al-Abdari to teach the people there the principles of Islam. Islam spread rapidly in Yathrib.
The following year, 73 people from Madina came to Aqabah and made a pledge to the Prophet ﷺ known as the Second Pledge of Aqabah.
The Prophet ﷺ gave the command for his companions to emigrate to Medina. The Makkans tried to prevent anyone from migrating, so the Muslims of Makkah made their way there in secret, leaving individually and in groups.
A group from the Quraish, desperate to stop the spread of Islam, hatched a plot to murder the Prophet ﷺ. In the meantime the Prophet ﷺ received permission to migrate to Yathrib.
The Prophet ﷺ and Abu Bakr left Makkah during the night. When the Quraish found out, they offered a large reward for the capture of the Prophet ﷺ, and sent out search parties to seek him out.
The journey to Yathrib was long and dangerous as the Prophet ﷺ and Abu Bakr took winding routes. Finally, the Prophet ﷺ arrived in Quba, where he spent a few days. During this time, the foundation of Quba mosque was laid. Thus the first mosque built in this era of Islam was laid.
The people of Yathrib were eager to receive the Prophet ﷺ and looked towards the horizon daily, looking for a sign of his arrival.
It was on a Friday morning, 12 years after the beginning of the revelation of the Quran, the Prophet ﷺ rode into Yathrib and was received with joy. Yathrib, would now be known as Madinah (which is a shortening of Madinatu Nabi, The City of the Prophet).
The first task the Prophet ﷺ attended to was the construction of a mosque. Nearby, rooms reserved for the Prophet’s ﷺ household were built, and to the north of the mosque was space for those who had no home nor family.
The Prophet ﷺ then concentrated on strengthening the bonds amongst the Muslims of Medina; between the Emigrants (Al-Muhajirun) and those from Medina, the Helpers (Al-Ansar), and also between the tribal factions that existed in Quraish, and the Madini tribes of Aws and Khazraj. The Prophet ﷺ also began to establish regular relations with non-Mulims.
The Quraish of Makkah resented the escape of the Prophet ﷺ and jealous of Islam’s growing strength. The Quriash were still determined to kill the Prophet ﷺ. They began to visit Medina in secret and propagate falsehoods against the Prophet ﷺ and Islam.
Allah gave the Muslims permission to defend the religion, thus the permission to fight in defence and retaliation was given.
The most notable of these battles:
The Battle of Badr. In the second year of Hijra, 14 years after the revelation of the Quran, a battle took place between the Muslims and the Quraish.
Previously, a caravan belonging to the Quraish escaped a military encounter with the Prophet ﷺ and his men. On the return of this caravan the Prophet ﷺ and around 300 men, two horses and 70 camels rode out towards Badr to intercept the caravan.
Leading the caravan, Abu Sufyan, sent a message asking for help from the Quraish with an immediate response.
On the 17th Ramadan, 300 of the Muslim army faced 1000 of the army of the Quraish. Despite being outnumbered, the battle ended as a decisive victory for the Muslims. The Quraish sustained heavy casualties and fled from the battlefield. At the end of the battle, 70 of the Quraysh had been killed and around 73-74 were taken prisoners of war. 14 from the Muslim army were killed.
The Battle of Uhud. This battle took place after the Quraysh sought revenge for their defeat at the Battle of Badr. Determined to crush the Muslims, the Quraysh assembled an army of 3,000 men from Mecca and marched toward Uhud.
In response, the Prophet ﷺ set out with an army of 1,000 Muslims. However, partway to the battlefield, 'Abdullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salool betrayed the Muslims, withdrawing with 300 of his followers, leaving the Muslim forces reduced to just 700 men.
Despite their reduced numbers, the Prophet ﷺ led the remaining troops to Uhud, where they confronted the Quraysh army. As the battle began, the Muslims initially gained the upper hand, forcing the Quraysh to retreat. However, a group of Muslim archers, who had been stationed to guard the rear, became distracted by the spoils in the enemy camp. Eager to claim their share, they abandoned their posts.
Seeing this opportunity, Khalid bin Walid, the commander of the Makkan cavalry, launched a surprise attack from behind. The retreating Quraysh soldiers regrouped and returned to the battlefield, trapping the Muslims in a fierce battle. Amidst the intense fighting, the Prophet ﷺ and his followers managed to retreat to the safety of Mount Uhud.
In the end, 22 of the Quraysh were killed, while the Muslims suffered 70 casualties. Despite the losses, the Muslims successfully thwarted the Quraysh's primary objective: to kill the Prophet ﷺ and extinguish the message of Islam.
Battle of the Trench. The Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of Khandaq (Trench) or the Battle of Ahzab (Confederates), was a 30-day siege of Medina. This battle was fought between the Muslims and a coalition of forces that included the Quraysh and several Jewish tribes.
Upon learning that Abu Sufyan was leading an army of 10,000 soldiers toward Medina, the Prophet ﷺ was advised by Salman al-Farsi to dig a trench along the northern border of the city, as the other sides were protected by dense forests and mountains. The Muslims took six days to complete this defensive trench.
The trench proved effective, preventing the Quraysh army from entering Medina. Unable to breach the city's defences, the Quraysh sought alternative strategies. The leader of Banu al-Nadir, a Jewish tribe, approached Banu al-Qurayza, another Jewish tribe that had previously signed a treaty with the Muslims and even assisted in digging the trench. However, Banu al-Qurayza betrayed the treaty and agreed to support the Quraysh by planning an attack on Muslim women and children in the southern part of Medina.
When the Prophet ﷺ learned of this plan, he swiftly sent a force to protect the vulnerable, successfully keeping Banu al-Qurayza at bay.
Meanwhile, Nuaym ibn Masud, an elderly man who had secretly embraced Islam, approached the Prophet ﷺ offering his assistance. The Prophet ﷺ advised him to sow discord between Banu al-Qurayza and the Quraysh. Following this advice, Nuaym ibn Masud warned Banu al-Qurayza that if the Muslims won, the Quraysh would abandon them, leaving them to face the consequences alone. He suggested they demand hostages from the Quraysh as a guarantee of their support.
Nuaym ibn Masud then went to the Quraysh and falsely claimed that Banu Qurayza had re-aligned with the Muslims, causing mistrust and suspicion between the two groups.
Eventually a powerful storm struck, leaving the Quraysh and Banu al-Qurayza in a weakened state, forcing them to withdraw from the battlefield. Despite being heavily outnumbered, with an army of only 3,000 Muslims against 10,000 enemies, the Muslims emerged victorious. This triumph significantly strengthened the reputation and influence of the Prophet ﷺ throughout the Arabian Peninsula.
In the seventh year after Hijra, the Prophet ﷺ set out with the muslims to Makkah with the intention of performing Umrah (pilgrimage). They met with the Makkans who prevented them from performing Umrah, however a contract was made between the two parties, known as “The Treaty of Hudaibiya”.
Of the terms included in this treaty was that fighting between them cease for 10 years and that whilst the Muslims had to return to Medina without performing Umrah that year, they could return and perform umrah the following year.
In the eighth year of Hijra, the Makkans broke the terms of the treaty, so the Prophet ﷺ conquered Makkah. The idols and other symbols of polytheism in Makkah were destroyed.
After this conquest of Makkah, Islam began to spread in Arabia, and delegations went out to various places to teach Islam.
The Prophet ﷺ passed away at the age of 63 years old on Monday the 12th of Rabi Al-awal. He ﷺ was buried where he passed away, in the house of Aisha.
One line about the companion
One line about the companion
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ABU BAKR AS-SIDDIQ
ALSO KNOWN AS ABDULLAH IBN ABI QUHAFAH
~ 573-634 CE
A SAHABA
FIRST GENERATION OF MUSLIMS
TRIBE OF TAYM, A BRANCH OF THE QURAYSH TRIBE
BEING THE FIRST ADULT MALE TO CONVERT TO ISLAM AFTER THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
BEING A CLOSE FRIEND AND CONFIDANT OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
SUCCEEDING THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ AS THE FIRST CALIPH OF THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY
LEADING THE MUSLIMS DURING THE RIDDA WARS (WARS AGAINST APOSTATES)
EXPANDING THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE THROUGH CONQUESTS
PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
ABU BAKR DID NOT AUTHOR ANY BOOKS, HIS LIFE AND ACTIONS ARE EXTENSIVELY DOCUMENTED IN ISLAMIC HISTORICAL TEXTS, PARTICULARLY THE SIRA AND SUNNAH.
• HE WAS KNOWN FOR HIS HONESTY, GENEROSITY, AND PIETY.
• HE WAS A SUCCESSFUL MERCHANT BEFORE CONVERTING TO ISLAM.
• HE WAS ONE OF THE FEW INDIVIDUALS WHO NEVER DOUBTED THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD'S ﷺ MESSAGE.
• HE PARTICIPATED IN THE HIJRAH (MIGRATION) TO MEDINA WITH THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ.
• HE WAS THE FIRST TO PLEDGE ALLEGIANCE TO THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD AS THE LEADER OF THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY.
Abu Bakr As-Siddiq was a pivotal figure in the early history of Islam. Born in Mecca, he quickly became a close friend and confidant of the Prophet Muhammad. After the Prophet's passing, Abu Bakr was elected as the first Caliph of the Muslim community.
His leadership was marked by his strong faith, his ability to unite the diverse Muslim population, and his military prowess. Under his guidance, the Islamic empire expanded through conquests in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt.
Known for his humility, generosity, and piety, Abu Bakr was revered by his contemporaries and has been admired by generations of Muslims since. His loyalty to the Prophet Muhammad and selfless service to Islam serve as an inspiration for Muslims worldwide.
632 CE
UMAR IBN AL-KHATTAB IBN NUFAYL AL-ADAWI AL-QURASHI
ABU HAFS (KUNYA)
40 BH – 23 AH / 584 CE – 644 CE
A SAHABA
FIRST GENERATION OF MUSLIMS
CALIPHATE: 13 – 23 AH / 634 – 644 CE
QURAYSH TRIBE, FROM THE BANU ADI CLAN
Second Caliph of Islam
Renowned for his justice and leadership
Instrumental in the expansion of the Islamic empire to include modern-day Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Persia
Strong opposition to Islam initially, followed by a passionate conversion that strengthened the Muslim community
Being one of the ten companions promised Paradise by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ
Martyrdom while leading the Fajr prayer
PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
Umar ibn al-Khattab did not write any books, but many of his sayings, letters, and judgments were recorded by others. His contributions to Islamic governance, legal systems, and administration have been well-documented in historical and Hadith literature.
• Did you know? Umar ibn al-khattab made a dua to die as a martyr in madinah—and it was answered, despite the unlikelihood of martyrdom in the prophet’s city.
• he was one of the ten people promised paradise (jannah) by the prophet muhammad (pbuh).
• umar was known for his strong stance on justice and famously said, "If a mule stumbles in iraq, I would fear that allah would ask me why I did not pave the road for it."
• he introduced the hijri calendar based on the lunar year.
• after his conversion, umar encouraged the muslims to publicly declare their faith, giving strength and visibility to the early muslim community.
Umar ibn al-Khattab was born in Makkah into the Quraysh tribe and initially opposed Islam. He embraced Islam after Prophet Muhammad ﷺ prayed for his guidance, and his conversion marked a turning point for the early Muslim community. As a close companion of the Prophet ﷺ, Umar played a crucial role in key battles and in the leadership of the growing Muslim state.
Appointed the second caliph in 13 AH (634 CE), Umar's ten-year rule was marked by rapid expansion of the Islamic empire into Byzantine and Sassanian territories. Known for his justice and administrative reforms, he introduced the Hijri calendar and established foundational Islamic governance. Umar was martyred in 644 CE while leading Fajr prayer and was buried next to the Prophet ﷺ and Abu Bakr, leaving a lasting legacy of justice and leadership.
636 CE
639-642 CE
56-35 BH / 584 CE – 644 CE
A SAHABA (AMONG THE EARLY COMPANIONS OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ)
FIRST GENERATION OF MUSLIMS
AL-QURASHI AL-UMAWI
Third Khalifah of the Rashidun Caliphate
Married two daughters of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ (Ruqayya and Umm Kulthum), earning him the nickname Dhunnurayn
articipation in key Islamic battles such as:
• Uhud
• Al-Khandaq (the Trench)
• Al-Hudaibiyah
• Khaybar
• The Conquest of Mecca
• Preparation and funding of the Battle of Tabuk with 300 camels
ABU BAKR AS-SIDDIQ: THROUGH HIS DA'WAH, WHICH LED TO UTHMAN IBN AFFAN’S EARLY CONVERSION TO ISLAM
PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
Uthman ibn Affan is not known for authoring any books but is recognised for compiling the Quran into a standardised written form during his caliphate.
• Possessor of the Two Lights: Married two daughters of Prophet Muhammad.
• Given Glad Tidings of Paradise: One of the ten companions specifically mentioned
• Dug the well of Rumah
• Prepared the army for the Battle of Tabuk.
• Stayed behind during the Battle of Badr: To care for his ill wife, earning him rewards despite not participating directly.
• Role in Conquests: Under his leadership, Islam expanded significantly with numerous military campaigns and territorial expansions.
Uthman ibn Affan was the son of Affan and was married to Ruqayya and Umm Kulthum, both of whom were daughters of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. He embraced Islam during its early days, influenced by Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, one of the Prophet’s closest companions.
Uthman took part in both of the significant migrations (Hijras) of early Muslims, first to Abyssinia and later to Medina, reflecting his commitment to the Muslim cause.
As the third Khalifah (caliph), Uthman played a central role in the early Islamic expansions and governance. His leadership was marked by his administrative contributions and his involvement in overseeing the growth of the Muslim community.
Uthman was widely known for his piety, generosity, and devotion to the well-being of the Muslim community. Among his significant contributions was his work in compiling the Quran, ensuring its preservation for future generations
In his later years, Uthman faced rising internal tensions, known as the fitna. These conflicts culminated in his assassination, bringing a turbulent end to his period of leadership.
SRIVIJAYA EMPIRE
c. 650 CE – 1377 CE
Southeast Asia
A maritime trading power that controlled the Strait of Malacca, becoming a center of Mahayana Buddhism and dominating Southeast Asian commerce for over 600 years.
The Srivijaya Empire was a thalassocracy (maritime power) centered on eastern Sumatra in present-day Indonesia, existing from approximately 650 CE to 1377 CE. At its height from the 8th to 12th centuries, it controlled territories including much of Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and parts of Borneo. The capital was initially at Palembang before shifting to Jambi in later periods. Control of the Strait of Malacca and other key shipping lanes between China and India allowed Srivijaya to dominate regional trade and become Southeast Asia's wealthiest empire for over six centuries.
Created a maritime trade empire controlling key shipping lanes between China and India.
Established one of Asia's most important centers of Mahayana Buddhist learning.
Developed a unique fusion culture blending Indian, Chinese, and indigenous influences.
Built sophisticated naval technology enabling dominance of Southeast Asian waters.
Created a trading network stretching from China to the Middle East and East Africa.
Srivijayan society was cosmopolitan and ethnically diverse, reflecting its position at the crossroads of international trade. The urban centers featured merchants from China, India, Arabia, and various Southeast Asian regions. The aristocracy adopted elements of Indian court culture, including Sanskrit literary traditions and Hindu-Buddhist religious practices. Archaeological evidence suggests wealth concentration among elites with access to imported luxury goods. Chinese records describe a highly stratified society with the maharaja (king) at the apex, surrounded by officials and nobles wearing fine garments and gold ornaments. The general population worked as farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, and sailors. Slavery was practiced, with captives from raids serving in the royal household or performing manual labor.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished under Srivijayan patronage, with the empire becoming an important center of Buddhist learning. Chinese monk Yijing spent six months studying Sanskrit at Palembang before continuing to India, later describing Srivijaya as a major Buddhist center with over 1,000 monks. The Nalanda inscription records that King Balaputradeva of Srivijaya established a Buddhist monastery in India. Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayana) gained prominence in later periods. Hinduism coexisted with Buddhism, particularly among the elite, with evidence of Shiva worship found in archaeological remains. Indigenous animistic beliefs persisted among the general population, often blending with Buddhist and Hindu practices. Religious ceremonies legitimized royal authority while promoting social cohesion across the culturally diverse empire.
Srivijaya was governed as a maharaja-centered mandala system, a Southeast Asian political model where power radiated outward from the center with decreasing intensity. The rulers maintained direct control over the capital region while peripheral territories were managed through alliances with local chiefs who acknowledged Srivijayan suzerainty. Loyalty was maintained through a combination of economic incentives, marriage alliances, religious legitimation, and when necessary, military force. The Telaga Batu inscription details elaborate loyalty oaths required from officials, suggesting concern with maintaining authority over distant territories. Court rituals incorporated both indigenous traditions and elements borrowed from Indian models. Succession appears to have followed patrilineal patterns within the ruling dynasty, though details of specific succession practices remain limited.
Trade formed the foundation of Srivijaya's economy and power. The empire's strategic location allowed it to control the Strait of Malacca and other key shipping lanes connecting the South China Sea to the Indian Ocean. Foreign merchants were required to conduct business through Srivijayan ports, paying taxes and duties that enriched the royal treasury. Chinese records indicate that ships often spent several months in Palembang waiting for favorable monsoon winds, creating a captive market for local goods and services. Major exports included forest products (camphor, sandalwood, resins), spices, and tin from mines in the Malay Peninsula. These goods were exchanged for Chinese porcelain, silk, and bronze; Indian textiles and gemstones; and Middle Eastern glassware. The empire maintained tributary relations with China, sending regular diplomatic-commercial missions bearing luxury goods.
Developed sophisticated shipbuilding techniques for vessels navigating both rivers and open seas.
Created harbor and port facilities capable of accommodating hundreds of foreign vessels.
Established complex water management systems in swampy coastal environments.
Advanced metallurgical skills, particularly in gold and bronze working.
Synthesized navigational knowledge from multiple maritime traditions.
Srivijaya's military power centered on its formidable navy, which policed shipping lanes, suppressed piracy (or engaged in it against rivals), and transported troops for coastal raids and territorial expansion. Chinese sources describe Srivijayan warships as large vessels carrying hundreds of soldiers armed with bows, lances, and shields. The empire's expansion along the coasts of Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula demonstrates effective amphibious capabilities. Land forces appear secondary to naval power, though they were sufficient to control hinterland regions providing valuable trade goods. Military operations frequently targeted rival port cities that threatened Srivijaya's trade monopoly. The 10th-century invasion of Java and later conflicts with the Chola Dynasty of southern India demonstrate both the strengths and limitations of Srivijayan military power.
Built Buddhist temples and monasteries, including Muaro Jambi temple complex.
Created gold and silver ceremonial objects reflecting Indian artistic influences.
Produced fine textiles using indigenous patterns and techniques.
Crafted bronze Buddhist statuary with distinctive Southeast Asian stylistic elements.
Constructed wooden palaces and ritual structures (now lost) described in foreign accounts.
Srivijaya's power began declining in the 11th century after the Chola Dynasty of southern India launched a devastating raid on its ports. Though the empire recovered, subsequent centuries saw increasing competition from Javanese kingdoms and rising regional powers. The Majapahit Empire from Java conquered Palembang in 1377, effectively ending Srivijayan independence. Despite its political collapse, Srivijaya's legacy endured through cultural, religious, and commercial patterns that shaped Southeast Asian development. Buddhist educational centers established under Srivijayan patronage contributed to the religion's spread throughout the region. Maritime trade networks pioneered by Srivijaya continued operating under new political authorities. Elements of Srivijayan statecraft and cultural synthesis influenced subsequent Southeast Asian kingdoms. In modern Indonesia, Srivijaya represents an important chapter in national history, symbolizing indigenous achievement before European colonization.
656-661 CE
ALI IBN ABI TALIB
ABU AL-HASAN (KUNYA)
ABU AL-HUSAYN (KUNYA)
ALSO KNOWN AS ABU TURAB
~23BH – 40 H / ~599 – 661 CE
A SAHABA
FIRST GENERATION OF MUSLIMS
TRIBE: BANU HASHIM (QURAYSH)
FATHER: ABU TALIB (REAL NAME: ABD MANAF), UNCLE OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
MOTHER: FATIMAH BINT ASAD, FROM BANU HASHIM
Fourth Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.
One of the Ten Companions promised Paradise.
Son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ (married to Fatimah bint Muhammad ﷺ)
Renowned for his bravery, piety, and knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence
PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
No direct authored works, but his speeches, letters, and sayings were later compiled, notably in Nahjul Balagha (though its authenticity is debated).
• Did you know that Ali ibn Abi Talib became a Muslim as a child, possibly at the age of 10, and was raised by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ himself?
• Did you know that Ali was known for his distinct brown complexion and had a large beard that covered his chest and shoulders?
• Did you know that Ali was the one to be given the flag during the battle of Khaybar, after the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ cured his eye ailment with his spittle?
• Did you know that Ali killed the renowned Persian horseman Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of Khandaq?
• Did you know that Ali was called Abu Turab, a nickname given to him by Prophet Muhammad ﷺ?
Ali ibn Abi Talib was born into the noble family of Banu Hashim and raised under the care of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ from a young age. He embraced Islam as a child, possibly at the age of 10, making him one of the earliest followers of Islam. His relationship with the Prophet ﷺ deepened when he married the Prophet’s daughter, Fatimah. Ali participated in nearly all major battles in the early days of Islam, including Badr, Uhud, and Khandaq, where he distinguished himself as a fearless warrior.
Ali became the fourth caliph after the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan, facing internal strife during his rule, including the First Fitna (civil war) involving key figures like Muawiyah. His leadership was marked by efforts to unite the Muslim community amidst growing tensions. Ali was ultimately assassinated by a Kharijite in 661CE.
661 CE
680 CE
670-711 CE
93-179 AH 711-795 CE
118-181 AH 736-797 CE
info info info info info info info info
107-187H / 705-803 CE
3RD GENERATION
TABAA'AT-TAABI'EEN
MODERN DAY UZBEKISTAN
BEING A HIGHWAY ROBBER
A TEACHER OF IMAM SHAFI'I
Grew up to be known as a notorious criminal engaged in highway robbery. He was feared amongst the people at the time and was well known in the area.
At the age of 40 years, whilst on his way to meet his beloved, he heard the verses of the Quran:
‘Has not the time come for the hearts of those who believe (in the Oneness of Allah) to be affected by Allah's Reminder (this Qur'an), and that which has been revealed of the truth…’
[Surah Hadid 16]
He replied “Nay indeed my Lord, the time has come”. He turned his life around and vowed to devote himself in worship to Allah and moved to Makkah. Whilst in Makkah, he gained so much knowledge he became an Imam of the deen, and was well known for righteousness, piety and Zuhd (abstinence) of worldly matters and was one of the Teachers of Imam Shafi'i.
ABASSID CALIPHATE
c. 750 CE – 1258 CE
Advanced science, mathematics, and medicine, while creating distinctive artistic and architectural traditions.
150-204 AH 767 - 820 CE
ABU ABDILLAH AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD IBN HANBAL IBN HILAL IBN ASAD
164-241H / 780-855 CE
HE WAS FROM THOSE THAT CAME AFTER THE TABI’EE TABI’EEN
HE WAS ASH-SHAYBANEE FROM THE TRIBE OF SHAYBAN, WHO WAS ADNANI.
HIS STRENGTH IN DEFENDING THE SUNNAH ON THE DAY OF THE MIHNAH (INQUISITION)
HIS VAST KNOWLEDGE IN THE SCIENCE OF HADEETH
BEING ONE OF THE FOUR IMAMS OF THE MADHAHIB
IMAM OF THE HANBALI MADHAB
HE TOOK KNOWLEDGE FROM THE IMAMS OF THE SUNNAH INCLUDING:
SUFYAN IBN UYAYNAH
ABDURRAZZAQ
IMAM ASH-SHAFI’EE
NOTABLE BOOKS:
He compiled the Musnad - one of the largest and earliest compilations of Hadeeth, with about 30,000 Hadeeths in it.
The Book of Zuhd – wherein he mentions the narrations related to piety and purification of the soul and self.
Fada’il as-Sahaba (Virtues of the Companions) – wherein he mentions the narrations related to the Companions of the Messenger and their virtues.
IMAM AHMAD MEMORISED 1 MILLION HADEETHS WITH THEIR CHAINS OF NARRATIONS, AT A TIME WHEN THE ARABS DIDN’T EVEN HAVE A WORD FOR MILLION.
Imam Ahmad grew up under the care of his mother as an orphan, as his father had died, close to the time of his birth. She taught him manners and etiquettes and was keen with regards to his studies. He began seeking knowledge at the age of 15 and took a keen interest in Hadeeth.
He was a pious man and was named an Imam in Zuhd by Imam ash-Shafi’ee.He endured persecution and imprisonment during the Mihna (the Inquisition) under the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun, who sought to impose the Mutazilite doctrine that the Quran was created. Imam Ahmad refused to accept this doctrine which caused him to be imprisoned for most of his life.
And on the day of the Mihnah, he was the last man standing for the religion, with the standing of the Prophets as mentioned by the scholars of his time.
800 CE
194-256 AH 810 - 870 CE
MUHAMMAD BIN ISMAIL BIN IBRAHIM IBN AL-MUGHIRAH AL-BUKHARI
ABU ABDULLAH (KUNYA)
194 - 256 H / 810 - 870 CE
EITHER THE 3RD GENERATION (TABI'UN) OR THE 4TH GENERATION (TABI'UT TABI'IN) AFTER THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD ﷺ
PRESENT-DAY UZBEKISTAN
Renowned Imam and Scholar of Hadith (sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ)
Compiler of the Sahih al-Bukhari, one of the most trusted collections of Hadith
STUDIED UNDER OVER A THOUSAND SCHOLARS FROM THE IMAMS OF AHLUS SUNNAH WAL JAMA'AH, INCLUDING:
MAKKI BIN IBRAHIM (BALKH)
SADAQA BIN FADL (MAR'A)
YAHYA BIN YAHYA BIN BAKR AL-MUQRI (NISABUR)
IBRAHIM BIN MUSA BIN YAZID AL RAZI (RAY)
MUHAMMAD BIN ISA AL TABBA (BAGHDAD)
HAJJAJ BIN MINHAL (AL-BASRA)
KHALID BIN MAHLAD (KUFA)
KHALID BIN YAZID AL MUQRI (KUFA)
ABDULLAH BIN ZUBAIR AL HUMAYDI (MAKKAH)
ISMAIL BIN ABI UWAIS (AL-MADINAH)
ABDULLAH BIN YUSUF AL-TINNISI (MISR)
ABU AL-YAMAN AL-HAKAM BIN NAFI' (SHAM)
MUHAMMAD BIN YUSUF AL-FARYABI (SHAM)
IMAM AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD
ALI AL-MADINI
ABDURRAHMAN IBN NAHDI
SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
Did you know Imam Bukhari was so meticulous in his research that he only narrated Hadith from scholars who were considered reliable authorities on the subject?
Did you know Imam Bukhari's exceptional memory allowed him to recall not only the Hadith themselves but also their chains of transmission?
Did you know Imam Bukhari was once subjected to a rigorous test by scholars in Baghdad who presented him with fabricated Hadith with mixed-up chains of narration? He successfully identified the correct versions, impressing those present.
Did you know that Sahih al-Bukhari is not only a collection of Hadith but also a book of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), as evidenced by the chapter headings and Imam Bukhari's legal positions?
Did you know prominent scholars like Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Abu Ammar Al-Husayn bin Hurayth praised Imam Bukhari's vast knowledge of Hadith and his contribution to Islamic scholarship?
Imam Bukhari was known for his exceptional memory and lifelong dedication to seeking knowledge. He began his journey of learning at a young age, around 10 years old, and continued to pursue knowledge for over 46 years. During this time, he traveled extensively throughout the Islamic world, collecting Hadith narrations. Over the course of 16 years, he compiled Sahih al-Bukhari, a highly respected collection of Hadith, selecting only the most authentic narrations from more than 600,000 that he had gathered.
Imam Bukhari was widely known for his piety, meticulous research methods, and focus on preserving the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. His careful approach to selecting reliable narrators and his dedication to authenticating Hadith played a significant role in his scholarly contributions.
Imam Bukhari's meticulousness extended to his narrators, only choosing those considered reliable authorities in their fields. His remarkable memory allowed him to not only recall Hadith accurately but also remember the chains of transmission for each narration. At one point, he was tested by scholars in Baghdad who presented him with fabricated Hadith that had incorrect chains of narration. Imam Bukhari successfully identified the correct versions, leaving the scholars in awe of his knowledge.
In addition to being a Hadith collection, Sahih al-Bukhari is also considered a book of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), evident from the chapter headings and the legal positions Imam Bukhari took. Prominent scholars such as Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Abu Ammar Al-Husayn bin Hurayth praised his vast knowledge of Hadith and his contributions to Islamic scholarship.
195-277 AH 811 - 890 CE
ABU HATIM MUHAMMAD IBN IDREES AL-RAZI
195-277 H / 811 - 890 CE
3RD GENERATION
HE WAS FROM THE TABI‘ AL-TABI‘EEN
MODERN-DAY TEHRAN, IRAN
ABU HATIM BELONGED TO THE HANDHALAH CLAN WITHIN THE LARGER BANU TAMIM TRIBE, AN INFLUENTIAL TRIBE IN ISLAMIC HISTORY.
He was a prominent hadith scholar, known for his critical analysis of hadith narrators (Jarh wa Ta'dil) and his contributions to Islamic jurisprudence and theology.
AHMAD IBN HANBAL (A KEY FIGURE IN HADITH SCIENCES AND FOUNDER OF THE HANBALI SCHOOL OF THOUGHT)
MUHAMMAD IBN ABDULLAH AL-ANSARI
UTHMAN IBN HEITHAM
ABU DAWOOD (FAMOUS FOR SUNAN ABU DAWOOD)
AL-JARH WA AL-TA'DIL (CRITICISM AND PRAISE OF NARRATORS)
KITAB AL-ILAL (THE BOOK OF CAUSES IN HADITH TRANSMISSION)
AQEEDAT AR-RAZIYEEN (CO-AUTHORED WITH ABU ZURA AL-RAZI)
KITAB AL-TAFSIR (EXEGESIS OF THE QUR’AN)
KITAB AL-ZUHD (THE BOOK OF ASCETICISM)
KITAB AL-SUNNAN (THE BOOK OF SUNAN)
Did you know that Abu Hatim al-Razi would have his son read hadith to him even while in the bathroom, showcasing his dedication to utilizing every moment for learning?
Did you know that Abu Hatim’s son, Abdur-Rahman, was instrumental in compiling Aqeedat Ar-Raziyeen, continuing his father's scholarly legacy?
Abu Hatim al-Razi was born in 195H in Rayy (modern-day Tehran, Iran). He embarked on a journey for knowledge at the age of 20, travelling extensively across the Islamic world, including Sham, Iraq, Hijaz, Palestine, and Syria. His travels lasted for seven years, covering vast distances on foot in search of knowledge. He is well-remembered for his dedication to the sciences of hadith and his contribution to the broader Islamic scholarly tradition. He also had a son, Abdur-Rahman, who became a notable scholar in his own right.
242-318 AH 857-930 CE
239-321 AH 853-933 CE
253-329 AH 867-941 CE
ABU MUHAMMAD AL HASAN BIN ALI BIN KHALAF AL BARBAHAAREE
253-329 H / 867-941 CE
HE WAS 3 YEARS OLD AT THE DEATH OF IMAM AL BUKHAARI. HE CAME AFTER THAT GENERATION.
He was from the greater scholars of the Hanaabilah, a caller to the Sunnah : he was very stern against the people of innovations and deviant sects, opposing them with his tongue and his hand.
Ibn Battah and Imaam Ahmad's son were both his students.
AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD AL HAJJAJ ABU BAKR AL MARROODHI (DIED IN 275 HIJRI) FAMOUS STUDENT OF IMAAM AHMAD
SAHL IBN ABDILLAH IBN YUNUS AT TUSTARI ABU MUHAMMAD (DIED IN 283)
AL FATH IBN SHUKHRUF (DIED IN 273 HIJRI)
SHARH-US SUNNAH
Did you know? Al-Barbahari's name comes from "al-barbahar," a type of medicine imported from India, suggesting he may have worked with or traded it.
Did you know? When Al-Barbahari passed away, only one person prayed over his body. However, a lady who witnessed his funeral prayer (janaaza) claimed upon opening her door, to have seen figures who prayed dressed in white and green garments, filling the room in a miraculous display.
He was born during the khilafah of Mu'tazi biLlah Muhammad. He grew up in an unstable political environment as well as flourishing knowledge where ahl as sunnah were widespread in the land.
He was a contemporary of a group of Imams such as Ibn Majah, Abu Dawud As-Sijistani, Hanbal ibn Ishaq (student of Imam Ahmad), and Ibn Qutaybah. Fully acquainted with the Madhhab of Imam Ahmad, he delved deeply into knowledge, acquiring `Aqīdah, Fiqh, and other sciences from great scholars. He excelled in learning, was influenced by Imam Ahmad's students, and was also a poet. Known for his piety and abstinence from worldly life, he stood firm for religion.
In Safar 323, his speeches gained significant influence, forbidding innovations. In response, the innovators persuaded Caliph Ar-Radhi to silence him. Al-Barbahari was then forced to leave the city and went into hiding, passing away in Rajab 329 AH at 76 or 77 years old.
280-360 AH 893 - 970 CE
ABU BAKR MUHAMMAD IBN AL-HUSAYN IBN ABDILLAH AL-BAGHDADI AL-AJURRI
280 - 360 H / 893 - 970 CE
HE CAME AFTER THE PERIOD OF THE GREAT IMAMS, SUCH AS IMAM AHMAD IBN HANBAL.
ASH-SHARI'AH: CONSIDERED AN ENCYCLOPEDIA ON ISLAMIC CREED AND JURISPRUDENCE BASED ON THE METHODOLOGY OF THE QURAN AND SUNNAH
ABU MUSLIM MUHAMMAD IBN YAHYA AL-MARWAZI
ABU SHU'AIB AL-HARRAAMI
AHMAD IBN YAHYA AL-HULWAANI
AL-HASAN IBN ALI AL-QATTAN
JA'FAR IBN MUHAMMAD AL-FIRYAAQI
IBN ABI DAWUD
ASH-SHARI'AH FI SUNNAH
KITAB AR-RO'YAH
AL-GHURABAH
AKHLAQ AL-'ULAMA
When he visited Mecca, he greatly admired the place and supplicated to Allah, saying, "O Allah, allow me to reside in this land for a year." He eventually passed away in this very city.
He was a renowned Islamic scholar who travelled extensively in search of knowledge, eventually settling in Mecca, where he became well-known for his teachings in hadith, Islamic law (fiqh), and ethics. He is considered to be a precise narrator and was highly regarded for his piety, humility, and strict adherence to the Sunnah. It is said that he followed both the Hanbali and Shafi'i madhabs but was not restricted to one school of thought (manhaj) in fiqh.
d. 369 AH 979 CE
d. 395 AH 1004 CE
351-418 AH 962-1027 CE
d.444 AH 1052 CE
1054 CE
368-463 AH 978-1071 CE
392-463 AH 1002-1071 CE
1066 CE
396-481 AH 1005-1088 CE
1096-1099 CE
436-516 AH 1044-1122 CE
d. 535 AH 1140 CE
d. 262 AH 1166 CE
d. 584 AH 1188 CE
541-600 AH 1146-1203 CE
577-643 AH 1181-1245 CE
1206-1368 CE
1215 CE
d. 643 AH 1245 CE
598-665 AH 1201-1267 CE
625-702 AH 1228-1303 CE
631-676 AH 1234-1277 CE
YAHYA IBN SHARAF IBN HASAN IBN HUSSAIN IBN JUM’AH IBN HIZAM AL-HAZIMI AL-‘ALIM MUHYIDDIN ABU ZAKARIYA AL-NAWAWI AL-DAMISHQI
631 - 676 AH / 1233 - 1277 CE
NAWA, A TOWN IN THE REGION OF DAMASCUS (SHAM)
HIS LINEAGE IS TRACED BACK TO A FAMILY IN NAWA, DAMASCUS
A GREAT SCHOLAR OF HADITH, ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE, AND ARABIC LITERATURE.
BEST KNOWN FOR HIS WORKS, INCLUDING:
• AL-ARBA’EEN AL-NAWAWIYAH (THE FORTY HADITH)
• RIYADH AS-SALIHEEN.
• Al-Arba’een Al-Nawawiyah (The Forty Hadith)
• Riyadh As-Saliheen
• Al-Majmoo’ (Shafi’i jurisprudence)
• Tahdhib Al-Asma wa Al-Lughat (Linguistics and biographies)
• Minhaj At-Talibin (Shafi’i Fiqh)
• Juz’ fīhī Thikri ‘I’tiqād as-Salaf fī al-Ḥurūf wa al-Aṣwāt – a treatise affirming the creed of the Salaf, completed less than five months before his passing.
Did you know? Imam Al-Nawawi passed away at the young age of 45, yet his scholarly contributions remain invaluable to Islamic literature.
Did you know? Imam An-Nawawi was known for his ascetic lifestyle, refraining from marriage and worldly pleasures to focus solely on his studies and worship.
Did you know? Despite his short life, Imam Al-Nawawi authored many works, demonstrating his dedication and blessing from Allah.
Birth and Early Life: Born in Nawa in 631 AH (1233 CE).
Education: Studied in Damascus and became known for his dedication to learning, scholarly contributions, and deep understanding of the Shafi’i Madhab.d. 702 AH 1305 CE
661-728 AH 1263-1328 CE
ABUL-ABBAS AHMED IBN ABD AL-HALIM IBN ABD AS-SALAAM IBN TAYMIYYAH
TITLES: MUHADDITH, AL-HAFIDH, AL-MUFASSIR, AZ-ZAHID, SHAYKH UL-ISLAM
661 - 728 AH/ 1263 - 1328 CE
HE WAS BORN ON A MONDAY IN THE CITY OF HARRAN WHICH WAS IN SYRIA AT THE TIME (MODERN-DAY TURKEY)
LINEAGE: AL-HARRANI
His vast knowledge in all the Islamic sciences, ranging from Fiqh and Hadeeth to grammar and Tafseer
His numerous works - that numbered over 300 volumes (some of which are lost today)
His in-depth refutations of many of the deviated sects and religions
HIS FATHER AND GRANDFATHER WHO WERE SCHOLARS OF THE HANBALI MADHAB
THE NEPHEW OF IMAM IBN QUDAAMAH
AND MANY OTHERS - ADH-DHAHABI RELAYED FROM HIM WHEN HE NUMBERED 43 OF HIS TEACHERS (3 OF WHICH WERE FEMALE SCHOLARS)
HE HAD A VAST LIBRARY WHEREIN HE STUDIED AND HE LOVED TO READ AND MEMORISE FROM A YOUNG AGE
• AL-AQEEDAH AL-WASITIYYAH (THE WASITEE CREED) - WHICH HE WROTE BETWEEN ASR AND MAGHRIB
• AL-JAWAB AS-SAHIH (THE CORRECT REPLY) - WHEREIN HE REFUTED THE CHRISTIANS AND THEIR DOUBTS
• AND MANY OF HIS SMALL TREATISES AND FATAWAS HAVE BEEN COLLECTED IN 20 VOLUMES!
He was born into a household of scholars and his father and grandfather were both respected scholars in their own rights.
He fought in battles against the Tartars and was successful on the battleground.
Early in his life, he left with his father and brothers and fled from Harran to Damascus (where he later died) due to an oppressive occupation of the Tartars in the year of 667AH.
He took a keen interest in knowledge at a young age, memorising Qur'an at the age of 7 and began to give fatwa and deliver lessons at just 17.
He was imprisoned multiple times due to his verdicts on divorce and marriage which the judges disagreed with in his time, and due to his rejection of the innovations of the Sufis, and due to the slander that he was an anthropormorphist.
He taught many Imams. From the most well-known:
Imam ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah
Al-Hafidh ibn Kathir
Al-Hafidh adh-Dhahabi and others.
673-748 AH 1274-1348 CE
SHAMS AD-DIN MUHAMMAD IBN AHMAD IBN ʿUTHMAN ADH-DHAHABI
673 – 748 AH / 1274 – 1348 CE
Scholar of Hadith and Islamic History: Adh-Dhahabi is renowned for his expertise in hadith, biographical criticism, and historical accounts, often highlighted on Salafi websites for his contributions to documenting the lives and works of early Islamic scholars.
IBN TAYMIYYAH
• SIYAR A'LAM AN-NUBALA (BIOGRAPHIES OF NOBLE FIGURES): A KEY RESOURCE DOCUMENTING THE LIVES OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS.
• TADHKIRAT AL-HUFFADH (MEMORIAL OF THE HADITH MASTERS): DETAILED ACCOUNTS OF HADITH SCHOLARS.
691-751 AH 1292-1350 CE
SHAMS AL-DIN ABU ʿABDULLAH MUḤAMMAD IBN ABI BAKR IBN AYYUB AL-ZURʿI AL-DIMASHQI
691-751H / 1292-1350 CE
HIS LINEAGE TRACES BACK TO A FAMILY KNOWN FOR THEIR SCHOLARSHIP; HIS FATHER WAS THE CUSTODIAN OF AL-JAWZIYYAH SCHOOL.
ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE (FIQH)
THEOLOGY
HADITH STUDIES
SUFISM CRITIQUE
PROLIFIC WRITINGS IN ISLAMIC SCIENCES
IBN TAYMIYYAH (HIS MOST NOTABLE TEACHER)
• ZAD AL-MAʿAD
• MADARIJ AL-SALIKIN
• IʿLAM AL-MUWAQQIʿIN
He was imprisoned alongside Ibn Taymiyyah for holding and propagating views that challenged certain established religious norms of the time.
Did you know? Ibn al-Qayyim was given the nickname "Ibn al-Qayyim" because his father was the custodian (al-Qayyim) of the al-Jawziyyah school in Damascus, making his name synonymous with a legacy of learning and scholarship.
Ibn al-Qayyim was a distinguished scholar in various Islamic sciences, known for his close companionship with his teacher, Ibn Taymiyyah. His studies included jurisprudence, theology, and Hadith, leading to extensive works on various Islamic disciplines. His writings continue to be influential in Islamic thought.
701-774 AH 1300-1373 CE
ABUL-FIDAA' ISMA'EEL IBN UMAR IBN KATHEER IBN DAW' IBN KATHEER
701 - 774 H / 1300 - 1373 CE
HE WAS BORN IN MIJDAL, A VILLAGE TO THE EAST OF BASRA (WHICH IS A TOWN IN THE PROVINCE OF DAMASCUS), WHERE HIS FATHER WAS A KHATEEB.
LINEAGE: AL-QURASHEE, AL-BASRAWEE (AN ASCRIPTION TO BASRA), THEN AD-DIMASHQEE (AN ASCRIPTION TO DAMASCUS)
His book on tafseer, which is one of, if not, the most well-known explanations of the Qur'an. Some of the scholars have said that the Ummah has not seen a tafseer like this one before or after it.
HIS MOST WELL-KNOWN TEACHERS:
• SHAYKH AL-ISLAM IBN TAYMIYYAH, AND HE WAS FROM THE CLOSEST OF HIS STUDENTS TO HIM
• THE IMAM, THE MUHADDITH AL-MIZZEE, AND HE CLOSELY ACCOMPANIED HIM AND MARRIED HIS DAUGHTER
• THE IMAM, THE HISTORIAN OF ISLAAM, ADH-DHAHABI, WHO WAS ALSO FROM THE STUDENTS OF SHAYKH AL-ISLAM IBN TAYMIYYAH
• TAFSEER IBN KATHEER, HIS MOST FAMOUS WORK, AND ONE OF THE GREATEST WORKS OF TAFASEER EVER WRITTEN.
• AL-BIDAYAH WAN-NIHAYAH (THE BEGINNING AND THE END) - A VOLUMINOUS WORK OF HISTORY, THAT GOES THROUGH THE COMPLETE HISTORY OF ISLAM, FROM THE TIME OF ADAM, TO HIS TIME.
• AL-FUSOOL FI SEERATIL-RASOOL (CHAPTERS FROM THE LIFE OF THE MESSENGER) - A SUMMARISED WORK ON THE LIFE OF THE MESSENGER AND NOTABLE EVENTS
He endured suffering from those in power, due to following some of the opinions of his Shaykh, Ibn Taymiyyah.
His dad died 6 years after he was born, after this, he moved with his brother to Damascus. He memorised the Qur'an shortly after, at the age of 10, and read the different recitations, and excelled in tafseer.
He married Zaynab, the daughter of the Imam al-Mizzee and through this he became close and studied under him. He excelled in Fiqh, Arabic grammar, Tafseer and Hadeeth. He closely studied narrations, and the defects in them.
He became the Shaykh of the Salihiyyah School, after the death of his Shaykh adh-Dhahabee, and the Shaykh of the Daarul-Hadeeth al-Ashrafiyyah for a short while after the death of as-Subkee. He also took charge of the school of an-Najeebiyyah, and at-Tankaziyyah, and an-Nooriyyah al-Kubra
He died on Thursday, the 26th of Sha'baan, in the year of 774AH, in Damascus, and was buried therein.
736-795 AH 1335-1393 CE
742-808 AH 1341-1406 CE
764-744 AH 1363-1342 CE
d. 807 AH 1404 CE
d. 841 AH 1437 CE
733-852 AH 1372-1449 CE
ABU FADL JIHABUDDIN AHMED IBN ALI IBN MUHAMMAD IBN AHMED AL-KINANI AL-SHAFI'I, COMMONLY KNOWN AS IBN HAJAR AL-ASQALANI.
773 - 852 AH / 1372 - 1449 CE
BORN IN EGYPT; HIS LINEAGE TRACES BACK TO ASQALAN, A REGION IN PALESTINE.
LINEAGE: ATTRIBUTED TO THE TRIBE OF KINANI. HIS NISBAH "AL-ASQALANI" INDICATES HIS ANCESTRAL ORIGIN FROM ASQALAN IN PALESTINE.
Renowned Hadith scholar, memoriser, and historian.
Best known for his commentary on Sahih Al-Bukhari, Fath Al-Bari.
Recognised for his vast contributions to Hadith sciences and jurisprudence.
STUDIED UNDER MANY EMINENT SCHOLARS, INCLUDING:
ZAYN AL-IRAQI
AL-BALGHINI
IBN MULAQIN
AL-IZZ IBN AL-JAMAA
IBN HISHAM (ARABIC LANGUAGE EXPERT)
AL-MAJD AL-SAYRUZABADI
AUTHORED OVER 150 BOOKS, MOST NOTABLY:
• FATH AL-BARI: COMMENTARY ON SAHIH AL-BUKHARI.
• AL-ISABA FI TAMYIZ AL-SAHABA: A WORK ON THE LIVES OF THE COMPANIONS.
• VARIOUS WORKS IN HADITH (NARRATOR SCIENCES), AND JURISPRUDENCE.
Memory: Known for his phenomenal memory, once reading Sahih Muslim in two days.
Reluctance to Judge: Initially reluctant to become a judge but later accepted the role upon insistence from Sultan and others.
Books: Authored more than 250 works, demonstrating his vast knowledge in Hadith and Rijal (narrator sciences).
Humour: Known for his light jokes and friendly manner, maintaining good relations with scholars and students.
Early Life: Born in 773 AH in Egypt. He became an orphan at an early age, losing his mother and then his father. Started memorising the Quran at the age of five and completed it by the age of nine.
Education: Admired Hadith sciences from an early age, learning from many sheikhs in Hijaz, Al-Sham, and Egypt. His memory was extraordinary, enabling him to memorise various texts in a short period.
Teaching and Travel: Taught Tafsir, Hadith, and Fiqh in renowned places like Al-Azhar and Jami' Amr in Cairo. Travelled to more than 50 cities, including regions like Hijaz, Damascus, Yemen, and Palestine, to seek knowledge. He was known for teaching, giving fatwas, and preaching in various cities.
Legacy: His works had a vast influence, particularly in Hadith sciences. His students included renowned scholars like Imam Al-Sakhawi. Became known as Al-Hafidh for his memorization skills. His authored works, especially Fath Al-Bari, are still widely referenced today.
Later Years: Served as Qadi (judge) of Egypt and later Sham. Held the position of chief Qadi multiple times until his death in 852 AH.
1453 CE
1492 CE
831-902 AH 1427-1497 CE
d. 909 AH 1503 CE
849-911 AH 1445-1505 CE
d. 1044 AH 1634 CE
1588 CE
1642-1651 CE
d. 1077 AH 1666 CE
d. 1134 AH 1721 CE
c. 1760-1840 CE
1099-1182 AH 1688-1768 CE
d. 1188 AH 1774 CE
1776 CE
1115-1206 AH 1703-1791 CE
1789-1799 CE
1791-1804 CE
1803-1815 CE
1815 CE
1200-1233 AH 1785-1818 CE
1173-1250 AH 1760-1834 CE
1193-1285 AH 1779-1869 CE
1861-1865 CE
1868 CE
1871 CE
1884-1885 CE
1220-1320 AH 1805-1902 CE
1307-1376 AH 1889-1956 CE
ABU ABDILLAH ABDUR-RAHMAN IBN NAASIR IBN ABDILLAH IBN NAASIR IBN HAMD
1307-1376 H / 1889 - 1957 CE
HE WAS AL-SA'DEE, FROM THE TRIBE OF BANU TAMEEM
His vast knowledge of Fiqh, especially the Hanbali madhab, and was one of the most well-versed scholars in it at his time.
His book of Tafseer, which has been translated to many languages, due to its simplicity and ease of access for laymen and beginner students, as well as having many benefits for more advanced students.
• SHAYKH MUHAMMAD AMEEN AL-SHINQEETI - WHO WAS A GREAT SCHOLAR OF TAFSEER AND THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AMONG OTHER SCIENCES
• SHAYKH IBRAHEEM IBN HAMD AL-JAASIR - WHO WAS HIS FIRST TEACHER AND TAUGHT HIM TAFSEER AND HADEETH SCIENCES
TAYSEER AL-KAREEM AR-RAHMAN (MORE COMMONLY KNOWN AS TAFSEER AS-SA'DI) - HIS GREAT WORK OF TAFSEER.
AL-QAWA'IDUL HISAAN (THE BENEFICIAL PRINCIPLES) - WHEREIN HE EXPLAINS PRINCIPLES THAT SHOULD BE UNDERSTOOD BY THOSE WANTING TO EXPLAIN AND UNDERSTAND THE QUR'AN
AND HE ALSO EXPLAINED MANY OF THE BOOKS OF IBN TAYMIYYAH AND MUHAMMAD IBN ABDUL-WAHHAB WHICH ARE NOW PRINTED
HE WAS ONE OF, IF NOT THE MOST, INFLUENTIAL TEACHER OF SHAYKH IBN UTHAYMEEN
He lived and grew up as an orphan and was looked after by his older brother who cultivated him upon knowledge and righteousness.
He began to memorise Qur'an at an early age, completing its memorisation by the age of seven. Then he began to study and acquire knowledge of the other sciences.
He would often read the books of ibn Taymiyyah and ibn Qayyim, and loved studying, revising, and memorising them.
He began teaching at 23, teaching students while reading to his scholars as well.
He fell ill in the year of 1371AH and died five years later in 1376AH
1320 AH 1902 CE
1288-1414 AH 1871-1993 CE
1310-1416 AH 1892-1996 CE
1313-1386 AH 1895-1966 CE
1315-1389 AH 1897-1969 CE
1330-1420 AH 1912-1999 CE
ABDUL-AZEEZ IBN ABDILLAH IBN ABDIR-RAHMAAN IBN MUHAMMAD IBN ABDILLAAH
1330 - 1420 H / 1912 - 1999 CE
HE WAS BORN IN RIYADH, THE CAPITAL CITY OF NAJD AND WHERE HE SPENT HIS CHILDHOOD UP TO EARLY ADULT YEARS.
LINEAGEbALI BAZ, WHICH WAS A FAMILY THAT HAD DEEP ROOTS IN KNOWLEDGE, BUSINESS AND AGRICULTURE. THEIR ORIGIN WAS IN MADINAH, THEN ONE OF THEIR ANCESTORS MOVED TO DIR'IYYAH.
BEING THE SECOND GRAND MUFTI OF SAUDI ARABIA, AND CONSIDERED AS THE SHAYKH AL-ISLAM OF HIS GENERATION.
• SHAYKH MUHAMMAD IBN ABDUL-LATIF IBN ABDIR-RAHMAAN IBN HASSAN IBN SHAYKH MUHAMMAD IBN ABDUL-WAHHAB
• SHAYKH MUHAMMAD IBN IBRAHIM - WHO WAS THE GRAND MUFTI OF SAUDI ARABIA BEFORE IBN BAZ AND ALSO FROM THE DESCENDANTS OF MUHAMMAD IBN ABDUL-WAHHAB
• SHAYKH SA'AD IBN HAMAD IBN ATEEQ - A QADHI (JUDGE) IN RIYADH
The Shaykh was very involved in writing books and treatises, and a main characteristic of them was how easy they were to understand, this is because he wrote to both the student and the layman. From his books:
• A Study and Clarification of Many Issues Relating to Hajj, Umrah and Visiting [the Holy Lands] in Light of the Book and the Sunnah - which was printed in many different languages
• A Rebuttal of Arab Nationalism in Light of Islam and Reality
• The Innovation Of Celebrating the Prophet's Birthday
• The Fifteenth of Sha'baan
And many of his fataawa [edicts] and treatises and works were gathered in a voluminous work, found in many of the libraries of the scholars and students of knowledge.
· Shaykh ibn Baz founded the famous Madinah Islamic University and worked there for 15 years, and worked as the dean of the university for a time.
· He was blind for most of his life, and with that, he was deeply involved in administration, issuing fatawa, writing books, teaching lessons, memorising texts, researching and political issues taking place at his time.
He was born in Riyadh, and was brought up in a household of knowledge and virtue. He was born with sight, and he began to lose it at 16, and completely lost it at age 20. However, before this, he memorised the Qur'an and several small treatises as well as writing small books.
He became a judge in the city of Kharj (near Riyadh), when he was 27, and stayed there for 14 years. Then he moved on to teaching in Riyadh, at the Riyadh Educational Institute, in the Faculty of Shari'ah, and he did this for 10 more years.
Then he was present for the founding of the Islamic University of Madinah, as the deputy head to the Mufti, Shaykh Muhammad ibn Ibraheem, and worked there for 15 years.
Then in 1994 CE, he was appointed as the Mufti of Saudi Arabia and head of the Council of Senior Scholars.
During his life, alongside his work, he was busy with knowledge, and took a keen interest in the science of Hadeeth, memorising much, and would be able to recognise a Hadeeth and evaluate its strength by merely hearing it.
He passed away in the year of 1999CE, and his janazah was prayed at Masjid al-Haram in Makkah, after the Jumu'ah prayer, and was buried there.
He left a massive impact on Muslims all over the world, and especially in his home country of Saudi Arabia, where you will struggle to find a masjid wherein his name isn't mentioned during the Jumu'ah Khutbah.
1914-1918 CE
1333-1420 AH 1914-1999 CE
MUHAMMAD NASIR-UD DEEN IBN NUH IBN ADAM
TRIBE: NAJATEE. HE WAS CALLED AL-ALBANI AS AN ASCRIPTION TO HIS HOME COUNTRY OF ALBANIA
1332 H - 1420 H / 1914 - 1999 CE
HE WAS BORN IN THE CITY OF ASHKODERA, IN ALBANIA, WHERE HE LIVED SOME OF HIS CHILDHOOD, HOWEVER, MIGRATED WITH HIS FAMILY TO DAMASCUS, DUE TO AN OPPRESSIVE LEADER IN ALBANIA.
His great work in the field of Hadeeth, where he was especially good at evaluating the strength of narrations, and their weaknesses, and comparing between conflicting reports. These works are reference works for students of knowledge around the world.
• HIS FATHER, SHAYKH AL-HAJJ NUH NAJATI WHO WAS A HANAFI JURIST FROM THE SCHOLARS OF ALBANIA. HE TAUGHT HIM THE QUR'AN, ITS TAJWEED, THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AND HANAFI FIQH.
• HE STUDIED UNDER SHAYKH SA'EED BURHANEE, ONE OF THE WELL-KNOWN SCHOLARS OF SHAM AT THE TIME.
• HIS MOST WELL-KNOWN SHAYKH, BAHJATUL-BAYTAAR WHO WAS THE MUFTI OF SHAM AT THE TIME, WHO HE HAD AN IJAZAH FROM TO CONVEY HADEETH ON HIS AUTHORITY. THIS RIGHT IS ONLY GIVEN TO FEW SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.
• HE WOULD FREQUENTLY DISCUSS WITH HADITH MASTERS LIKE SHAYKH AHMED SHAKIR OF EGYPT AND SHAYKH ABDUL-SAMAD SHARFUD-DIN OF INDIA.
• THE PROPHET'S PRAYER DESCRIBED (SIFATU-SALATIL NABI) - WHEREIN HE MENTIONS THE AUTHENTIC NARRATIONS RELATED TO THE SALAH AND HOW THE PROPHET WOULD PRAY IT
• HE WROTE MANY WORKS AUTHENTICATING FAMOUS HADEETH WORKS, WHERE HE WOULD COMPILE THE WEAK FROM THEM, AND THE AUTHENTIC FROM THEM WITH HIS EVIDENCES, BEING A REFERENCE POINT FOR STUDENTS AND SCHOLARS OF HADEETH
He studied at the Maktabatul-Dhahiriyyah so much, he was given his own keys to enter whenever he pleased.
Shaykh Muhammad Ameen ash-Shinqiti had so much respect for him, he would stand up during his lessons at the Masjid an-Nabawi to give him salaams.
He was born in Albania, and at an early age, he and his family made hijrah to Sham due to its virtue and closeness to Albania and due to a tyrannical ruler in Albania at the time.
There he studied in the schools of Damascus, and at the feet of its scholars. He took a keen interest in the Hadeeth of the Messenger and got ijazat from Hadeeth scholars to narrate from them. Later, he began to teach at the Islamic University in Madinah from the time of its establishment for 3 years, and this sparked an insurgency in interest in Hadeeth and its sciences. He was praised by the scholars for this, and was named as the Mujaddid (reviver) by many of them. He later moved to Jordan where he spent the rest of his life, passing away at the age of eighty-six.1917 CE
1919 CE
1342-1377 AH 1924-1958 CE
1347-1421 AH 1925-2001 CE
1929-1939 CE
1349 - 1416 H 1930 - 1996 CE
ABU AHMAD MUHAMMAD AMAN IBN ALI AL-JAMI
1349 H - PRESENT / 1930 CE - PRESENT
HE WAS BORN AND RAISED IN HABASHA (ETHIOPIA), IN THE HARARI REGION, IN A SMALL VILLAGE CALLED TUGHAA TAAB.
LINEAGE: al-Jami
He was one of the teachers in Madinah University, and taught many students, well-respected as a scholar of the correct Islamic creed, and many flocked to his lessons. He was also a teacher in the College of Shari'ah in the Islamic University of Madinah, and was one of those most firm in refuting the extremists in the 80s and 90s.
• IN HIS HOME VILLAGE HE STUDIED ARABIC WITH SHAYKH MUHAMMAD AMIN AL-HURAREE.
• IN SAUDI ARABIA HE BENEFITTED FROM SHAYKH ABDUR-RAZZAQ HAMZAH, SHAYKH ABDUL HAQQ AL-HASHIMI AND SHAYKH MUHAMMAD ABDULLAH AS-SOMALI AND OTHER THAN THEM.
• HE THEN BENEFITTED FROM SHAYKH MUHAMMAD IBN IBRAHIM, THE MUFTI OF HIS TIME, SHAYKH MUHAMMAD AMEEN ASH-SHINQITI AND SHAYKH ABDUR-RAZZAQ AFIFI.
• HE ALSO BENEFITTED FROM THE GREAT SCHOLAR MUHAMMAD KHALIL HARRAS AND HE LATER EXPLAINED ONE OF HIS EXPLANATIONS OF ANOTHER WORK.
• AL-ṢIFĀT AL-ILĀHIYYAH (THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES) - WHICH IS ONE OF HIS MOST BENEFICIAL WORKS AND IT IS REGARDING THE ATTRIBUTES OF ALLAAH AND HOW TO GO ABOUT THE ISSUE WITHOUT GOING TO EXTREMES IN DENIAL OR AFFIRMATION.
• HAQIQATUL-DIMUQRATIYYAH WA ANNAHA LAYSAT MIN AL-ISLAM (THE REALITY OF DEMOCRACY AND THAT IT IS NOT FROM ISLAM)
• AL-AQIDAH AL-ISLAMIYYAH WA TARIKHUHA (THE ISLAMIC CREED AND ITS HISTORY) - AND IT WAS ORIGINALLY A LECTURE WHICH HE DELIVERED, THAT WAS TRANSCRIBED AND PUBLISHED.
The Shaykh is one of those who migrated for the sake of Allaah as he migrated from Ethiopia to Somalia then to Aden, Yemen. There they faced much danger, but walked on during the month of Ramadan until they reached Saudi Arabia on foot, all for the sake of seeking knowledge and performing the Hajj.
He was born in a small village in Ethiopia and there, he memorised the Qur'an and the books of Fiqh of the Shafi'i madhab and the Arabic language.
He then made hijrah to Saudi Arabia with his colleague and fellow student, Shaykh Abdul-Karim. There, he performed his obligatory Hajj and then began to sit in the sittings of knowledge in the Masjid al-Haram in Makkah, benefitting from its scholars.
He became familiar with the Shaykh ibn Baz and accompanied him on his travels to Riyadh in the same year that he opened the educational institute there. He completed his secondary school studies there, and went on to enrol and graduate from the College of Shari'ah in 1960 CE.
He then received his Master's Degree in Shari'ah from the University of Punjab in 1974CE and then received his doctorate from Dar al-Ulum in Cairo. He carried on studying under the scholars in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, busying himself with knowledge.
He was appointed as a teacher in the secondary school of the Islamic University of Madinah soon after it was open and then appointed to teach in the College of Shari'ah.
He was afflicted at the end of his life with an incurable disease which kept him bedridden for nearly a year and passed away on Wednesday the 20th of Sha'ban in the year 1416H.
1349 H - PRESENT 1930 CE - PRESENT
ABDUL-MUHSIN BIN HAMAD AL-ABBAD
1349 H - PRESENT / 1930 CE - PRESENT
A leading scholar in Hadith sciences, former professor, and the first principal of the Islamic University of Madinah. Renowned for his teaching at the Prophet's Mosque and his emphasis on unity among Ahlus Sunnah.
• SHEIKH MUHAMMAD IBN IBRAHIM AL-SHEIKH
• SHEIKH ABDUL-AZIZ IBN BAZ
• RIFQAN AHL AL-SUNNAH BI AHL AL-SUNNAH (WRITTEN IN 1416 AH/1995 CE)
• VARIOUS OTHER WORKS ON HADITH AND FIQH
Did you know? He started teaching at the Prophet's Mosque in 1406 AH (1985 CE) and remains active to this day.
Did you know? His book Rifqan Ahl al-Sunnah bi Ahl al-Sunnah was praised for advocating unity among scholars of Ahlu Sunnah
Shaykh Abdul-Muhsin was born in 1930 CE (1349 AH) and began his formal education in Zulfi, later moving to Riyadh. He joined the Islamic University of Madinah at its inception in 1961 CE (1381 AH) and served as its first principal. Despite his advanced age, he continues to teach at the Prophet's Mosque, advocating for gentleness, wisdom, and unity in scholarship.
1356-1422 AH 1935-2001 CE
1357-1444 AH 1938-2022 CE
UBAID IBN ABDULLAH IBN SULAIMAN AL-HAMDANI AL-JABIRI
1357-1444 AH / 1938-2022 CE
BORN IN A VILLAGE CALLED FAKIR IN THE FAR' VALLEY OF MEDINA, HIJAZ, SAUDI ARABIA.
LINEAGE:From the Jabir tribe, a branch of the well-known Harb tribe in the Hijaz region of Saudi Arabia.
Renowned Islamic scholar known for his knowledge and teaching of Aqeedah (Islamic creed), Tafsir, Hadith, and the methodology of the Salaf (righteous predecessors).
Gave commentary on many classical Islamic texts, especially those written by Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahab.
STUDIED UNDER SEVERAL PROMINENT SCHOLARS, INCLUDING:
• SHEIKH SAIF AL-RAHMAN IBN AHMAD
• SHEIKH AMMAR IBN ABDULLAH
• SHEIKH ABDULLAH IBN ABDUL AZIZ AL-KHUDAIRI
• SHEIKH AWZA IBN TALQ AL-AHMADI
• SHEIKH DAKHILULLAH IBN KHALIFA AL-KHULAITI
• SHEIKH ABD AL-RAHMAN IBN ABDULLAH IBN AJLAN
• SHEIKH HAMAD IBN MUHAMMAD AL-ANSARI (GREAT SCHOLAR OF HADITH FROM MALI)
• SHEIKH ABD AL-MUHSIN AL-ABBAD
• SHEIKH ABU BAKR AL-JAZAYRI
AUTHORED SEVERAL BOOKS AND COMMENTARIES, INCLUDING:
• EXPLANATION OF THALATHATUL USOOL (THE THREE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES)
• EXPLANATION OF SITTAT USOOL (SIX PRINCIPLES)
• QAWAID AL-ARBA' (FOUR RULES)
• KITAB AL-TAFSIR FROM SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
Blindness: Sheikh Ubaid was blind, but he did not let this hinder his pursuit of knowledge and teaching. He maintained an impressive memory and understanding of the religion.
Concern for Others: Was known for his care for his students and concern for their well-being. He was described as having "hayba" (awe-inspiring presence) and a welcoming nature.
Legacy: His passing had a profound impact on the global Ahlus Sunnah community due to his involvement in supporting and nurturing Islamic knowledge, particularly in the West.
Early Life: Born in 1357 AH (1938 CE) in the village of Fakir, moved to Medina in 1374 AH (1954 CE). His early education included primary schooling in Mahd al-Dhahab.
Education: Joined Dar al-Hadith in Medina in 1381 AH (1961 CE) and later the Islamic University of Medina. Graduated with excellent grades in 1392 AH (1972 CE). Completed a master's degree in Tafsir. Career: Served as Imam in Masjid Sabq in Medina, taught at intermediate schools, and worked as a Da'i (caller to Islam) at the Da'wah Center in Medina. Later became a teacher at the Islamic University of Medina until his retirement. Character: Known for his kindness to students, openness to people from all over the world, and concern for spreading Islamic knowledge. Welcomed students into his home for questions and teachings. Maintained a deep connection with Ahlus Sunnah in both the East and the West. Passing: Passed away in 1444 AH (2022 CE) at the age of 87.1939-1945 CE
1945 CE
1947 CE
1949 CE
1950-1953 CE
1962 CE
1950s-1960s CE
1969 CE
1989 CE
1991 CE